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Catabolic Reactions

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Involve the breaking of larger molecules into smaller molecules(precursor metabolites); Exergonic reaction

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Anabolic Reactions

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Synthesize large molecules from smaller products of catabolism; Endergonic reactions

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Dehydrogenation Reactions

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Oxidation reaction involving the loss of hydrogen atoms.

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Phosphorylation

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Process of storing energy in high-energy phosphate bonds of molecules such as ATP; Inorganic phosphate is added to substrate

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Substrate-Level Phosphorylation

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Involves the transfer of phosphate to ADP from another phosphorylated organic compound

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Oxidative Phosphorylation

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Energy from redox reaction of respiration is used to attach inorganic phosphate to ADP

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Photophosphorylation

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Light energy is used to phosphorylate ADP with inorganic phosphate

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Catalysts

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Chemicals that increase the likelihood of a reaction but are not permanently changed in the process

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Enzymes

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Organic catalysts

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Hydrolases

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Catabolize molecules by adding water in a decomposition process, hydrolization; Primarily used in the depolymerization of macromolecules.

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Isomerases

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Rearrange atoms within a molecule but do not add or remove anything (neither catabolic or anabolic)

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Ligases/Polymerases

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Join 2 molecules together (anabolic)

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Lyases

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Split large molecules without using water (catabolic)

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Oxidoreductases

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Remove electrons from or add electrons to various substrates (catabolic and anabolic)

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Transferases

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Transfer functional groups, between molecules (anabolic)

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Apoenzymes

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Contain protein portions, rather than solely comprised of proteins; Inactive if not bound to nonprotein inorganic ions called Cofactors

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Coenzymes

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Either vitamins or ocntain vitamins, which are organic molecules that are required for metabolism but cannot be synthesized by certain organisms

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Holoenzyme

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An active enzyme formed by binding an apoenzyme and its cofactor

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Ribozymes

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RNA molecules instead of protein molecules; Process other RNA molecules by removing sections of RNA and splicing the remaining pieces together

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Hyperthermophiles

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Enzymes that work best above 80 degrees celcius

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Denaturation can occur when...

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enzymes lose their 3D shape due to noncovalent bonds breaking

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How can pH affect enzyme activity?

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Ions released form acids and bases can interfere with hydrogen bonding and distort an enzyme's 2D/3D structure

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As concentration increases...

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enzymatic activity increases

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Competitive Inhibitors

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Shaped to fit an enzyme's active site and therefore prevent the substrate from binding; Do not undergo a chemical reaction

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Noncompetitive Inhibitors

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Prevent enzymatic activity by binding to an allosteric site located elsewhere on the enzyme; Alters the shape of the active site so the substrate can't bind

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Allosteric (Noncompetitive) Inhibition

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Halts enzymatic activity

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Excitatory Allosteric Control

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Binds activator molecules to allosteric site, causing a change in the shape which then activates an otherwise inactive enzyme

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Feedback Inhibition

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Functions similar to a thermostat controlling a heater; End product is an allosteric inhibitor of an enzyme from an earlier part of the pathway; Slows or stops anabolic pathways when the product is in abundance

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Cellular respiration

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Metabolic process involving complete oxidation of substrate molecules and production of ATP by redox reactions

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Fermentation

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Results in organic waste products

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Glycolysis

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Process that catabolizes 1 molecule of 6-C glucose -> 2 molecules of pyruvic acid and results in a small amount of ATP production

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Step 1 Glycolysis- Energy-Investment Stage

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Must invest energy before product can be made; 2 mol ATP invested + 6-C glucose; Those rearrange to make 1,6-biphosphate

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Step 2 Glycolysis- Lysis Stage

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Fructose 1,6-biphosphate cleaved into 3-phosphate (G3P)5 and DHAP; Each of these compounds contains 3 carbon atoms freely convertible to the other

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Step 3 Glycolysis- Energy-Conserving Stage

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G3P is oxidized into pyruvic acid, giving 2 ATP molecules; DHAP is converted to G3P and also oxidized into pyruvic acid, giving another 2 ATP; Glycolysis also yields 2 molecules of NADH

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Substrate-Level Phosphorylation

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The direct transfer of the phosphate between the two substances; In the presence of holoenzyme, the high-energy phosphate in PEP is transferred to an ADP

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Decarboxylation

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Removal of carbon dioxide from pyruvic acid yields acetyl Co-A

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Synthesis of Acetyl-CoA

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2 pyruvic acid molecules yield 2 molecules of acetyl co-A, 2 molecules of CO2, and 2 molecules of NADH

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Kreb's Cycle, TCA cycle, Citric Acid Cycle

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Series of 8 enzymatically catalyzed steps that transfer much of the stored energy to NAD+ and FAD; Occurs in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes and matrix of mitochondria in eukaryotes

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Step 1 Kreb's cycle

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Anabolism of citric acid- Splits bond between acetate and coenzyme A which forms 6-carbon compound citric acid

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Step 2 Kreb's cycle

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Isomerization reaction

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Steps 3-4 Kreb's cycle

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Decarboxylations- Releases 2 molecules of CO2 for each acetyl co-A that enters. For every 2 carbon atoms that enter, 2 are lost to the environment; At this point all 6 carbons have been lost

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Step 5 Kreb's cycle

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Substrate level phosphorylation- For every 2 molecules of acetyl Co-A, 2 molecules of ATP are generated

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Step 7 Kreb's cycle

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Hydration Reaction

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Steps 3-8 Kreb's cycle

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Redox Reaction: Reduce FADH->FADH2; Reduce NAD+->NADH; For every 2 molecules of acetyl Co-A, 6 molecules of NADH and 2 FADH2

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Electron Transport

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Series of membrane-bound carrier molecules; Energy from the electrons is used to pump H+ across the membrane, establishing a proton gradient that generates ATP

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Flavoproteins

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Carrier molecule; Integral membrane proteins

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Ubiquinones

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Carrier molecule; Lipid-soluble, nonprotein carriers

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Metal-containing proteins

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Mixed group of integral proteins with a wide ranging number of iron, sulfur, and copper atoms

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Cytochromes

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Integral proteins associates with heme

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Aerobic Respiration

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Process of the oxygen final electron acceptor binding with H+ to make water

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Anaerobic Respiration

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Use molecules instead of oxygen as the final electron acceptor; Critical in recycling nitrogen and sulfur in nature

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Chemiosmosis

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Sue of ion gradients to generate ATP by utilizing the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient across a membrane

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What type of phosphorylation happens in chemiosmosis?

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Oxidative phosphorylation because proton gradient is created by the oxidation of components of the ETC

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Products of the ETC

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34 molecules of ADP per molecule of glucose; Complete aerobic respiration of a prokayote yields 38 ATP, and eukaryote yields 36 (2 to transport NADH)

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Fermentation

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The partial oxidation of sugar to release energy using an organic molecule form within the cell as an electron acceptor; Consists of metabolic reactions to oxidize NADH->NAD+ while reducing endogenous organic molecules which act as final electron acceptors

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Main function of fermentation

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Regeneration of NAD+ for glycolysis so that ADP molecules can be phosphorylated into ATP

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Photosynthesis

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Capture light energy form the sun and use it to drive the synthesis of carbohydrates from CO2 and water

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Chlorophylls

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Molecules of hydrocarbon tail attached to a light-absorbing active site centered around a magnesium ion

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Photosystems

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Light harvesting matrices that are embedded in cellular membranes, thylokoids

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Prokaryotic thylokoids

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Invaginations of cytoplasmic membranes

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Eukaryotic thylokoids

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Infoldings of inner membranes of chloroplasts

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Grana

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Stacks of thylokoids in eukaryotic chloroplasts

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Stroma

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Space between the outer membrane and the thylakoid membrane

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Reaction Center Chlorophyll

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Chlorophyll molecule what all pigments eventually arrive at; When excited the center passes its excited electrons to the electron acceptor (take to ETC)

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Cyclic Photophosphorylation

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The final electron acceptor is the original reaction center chlorophyll that donated the electrons

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Noncyclic Photophosphorylation

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Requires both PSI and PSII; Generates molecules of ATP and reduces NADP+->NADPH

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Light independent reactions

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Do not require light directly; instead use ATP and NADPH generated by the light-reactions

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Calvin-Benson Cycle

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Involves attachment of molecules of CO2 to molecules of a 5-carbon organic compound, RuBP; 3 step process

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Amphibiolic

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Reactions that can proceed in either direction, catabolism or anabolism

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