Exploring Key Issues of Children and Young People’s Civic Engagement in a Particular Site

simply a request for them to be recognized as vital members of society, with their unique perspectives and voices deserving legitimacy. Unfortunately, due to a lack of independent representation or political voice, children's interests are often misunderstood - adults mistakenly conflating their own views for those of their younger counterparts. Children and young people are often viewed as lacking the capacity for rationality and cognition, being dependent, and needing protection from both schools and parents - further compounded by a lack of life experiences to deal with various issues.

The question of whether children and young people should actively engage in civic matters, or partake in decision-making processes for organizations has generated a great deal of discourse. Elizabeth F. Cohen (2005) is an advocate for children's voices being heard and recognized by democratic society. She argues that democratic politics has neglected and failed to adequately govern children and young people.

Children are both deemed to be citizens through their possession of passports, yet also considered incapable of true citizenship due to their inability to make rational, informed decisions associated with self-governance. The issue of governing children within liberal democracies has proved challenging for theorists in both democratic politics and citizenship studies. While many acknowledge that children do not hold full citizenship, few delve deeper into the issue beyond this basic observation (Cohen, 2005:222). While some argue that children lack the fundamental capacities required for civic engagement in democratic deliberation, Cohen argues that children possess unique claims to things denied to adults, making them exceptional in several ways that even other adult semi-citizens are not (2005). Furthermore, Dahl proposes that children are often seen as a justifiable yet

uninteresting exception to the rules of democracy, rather than an informative example of the ambiguity surrounding membership deserving of sustained academic attention (1989:127). Cohen also introduces two significant perspectives on children: the paternal and the minor (2005).

The concept of paternalism and its application to children is criticized as a form of adult authority over minors. This perspective results in adults assuming control over the higher interests of children, leading to their exclusion from public matters and confinement to the private realm of family life (Cohen 2005: 224). Nevertheless, Miller contends that paternalistic policies and philosophies are designed to enhance the interests of individuals by limiting their freedom (1995:367-8), which has the consequence of denying children’s citizenship rights both explicitly and implicitly. The implicit view arises from the presumption that children are generally lacking specific abilities and are therefore considered immature and unsuitable for rational decision-making typical of democratic self-governance. Consequently, paternalistic policies assume that children are not capable citizens.

According to Cohen (2005: 225), the debate about immaturity implies that a certain level of paternalism is appropriate when it comes to how children are treated in politics. To fully comprehend this idea, it is useful to examine the position of minors in Roman law, which served as the basis for contemporary views on citizenship rooted in legal rights (Pocock, 1995). In Roman law, parental authority extended over all aspects of a child's life - including labor, property ownership and their very existence. This absolute control over children during earlier forms of citizenship explains why they were not considered citizens until modern times. According to Cohen (2005), regarding children as mere extensions of adult interests overlooks their

unique needs and desires.

The perspective that minors are seen as tools for accomplishing adult objectives, disregarding their own interests, is known as the minor view of children. This viewpoint emphasizes their future position as adults, the societal values they should adhere to, and the societal requirements that will embrace them as full-fledged adult members. Cohen contends that children's current status as minors is perceived to be both provisional and preparatory (Cohen, 2005: 230).

Although policies and laws affecting young people are designed with the intention of molding them into the citizens adults want them to be, it is important to recognize that children have unique political interests and needs that aren't solely focused on their future development. Even though they may have developing minds and capabilities, this provides opportunities for exploring beyond their home environment. In addition to participation in decision-making organizations, youth transition is a crucial consideration as it has evolved for contemporary generations compared to previous ones.

Long-term socio-structural, economic, and demographic changes, as well as policy responses to such changes are responsible for the complexity of youth transitions. These changes have affected young people in various ways and degrees. Morrow and Richards (1996) argue that what was once a straightforward process has become increasingly complicated. This complexity is due to established patterns of transition being freed up, resulting in more open-ended and fluid youth transitions.

With the introduction of citizenship, young people can attain social majority despite uncertainties such as unemployment, longer education and training periods, and dependency on parents. Citizenship rights and obligations are acquired with age regardless of an individual's economic status, guaranteeing eventual adulthood citizenship (Jenkins, 1990:135). Citizenship's entitlements contrast with its

exercise; citizenship status is given by political authority and not influenced by social standing or financial power (Parker, 1998, p. xi). However, external factors restrict people from using their citizenship status to the fullest, leading to the substantial undermining of many young people's citizenship status in recent years.

The idea of citizenship has undergone rapid changes in recent years. There has been a shift towards active participation and away from passive citizenship, which has gained new prominence in political debates and policy agendas. The concept of an active citizen originated on the right end of the political spectrum in the late 1980s. This emphasized the significance of personal responsibility, leading to a wider duty of care for one’s community (Hall&Williamson,1999:503). In January 1998, the Lord Chancellor highlighted the need for a collective effort to instill a more active conception of citizenship, participation, and mutuality with society in young people. However, recent remarks regarding the importance of citizenship, particularly for disadvantaged youngsters (France 1996), have focused on educating them. Schools play a vital role in promoting children and young people’s civic engagement. Civic content and skills need to be rigorously taught, an open classroom climate is vital in discussing issues, emphasizing the importance of the electoral process, and encouraging a participative school culture.

When schools have limited educational resources and students are not planning to attend college, they face a particular challenge. The priority in schooling is now on education for citizenship, which focuses on developing skills and knowledge among young people. This subject centers around the concept of citizenship, which lacks a definitive or timeless definition. According to the IEA Civic Education Study (2001), good citizenship includes

voting and obeying laws. However, traditional political activities like joining a party, running for an office, or writing letters to newspapers are not part of most students' plans.

Although students may not show much interest in political involvement, they display a willingness to partake in other civic engagements such as fundraising for social causes and charitable activities. Additionally, they acknowledge the importance of adult citizens participating in community and environmental groups. Schools play an essential role in promoting civic education by educating students on democratic processes, exemplifying democratic practices, emphasizing the significance of elections, and offering opportunities for extracurricular activities that focus on civic-oriented initiatives. Through such efforts, schools can inspire today's students to become active citizens tomorrow (Purta J. T, 2005). Civic education delivered by schools can also enhance children's and young adults' understanding of civic responsibility which could lead them to be more inclined to vote later on.

The priorities set in school curricula shape the expected behavior of young people and encourage them to collaborate with peers and join organizations. This presents an opportunity for youth organizations to positively influence civic participation among young people, both within and outside of school. Education can inspire children and young people to engage in civic activities through these organizations by providing them with a valid understanding of their place in the world. Youngsters perceive the world differently from adults, and their insights can help adults better understand their experiences. However, little attention has been given to how politics constructs childhood, particularly adult politics. The laws and policies governing societies play a pivotal role in shaping how children become citizens during their early years.

As stated by McNaughton (2005),

the political strategies employed to create respectful and ethical environments for children are aimed at building democratic communities where they can thrive. The paternal and minor perspectives each bring unique shortcomings to children's governance, while also bolstering the other's strength and apparent legitimacy. While it's true that adults play a significant role in determining policies that affect children, using phrases like "best interests of the child" or disregarding their interests and opinions falls short of developing better, more inclusive policies. Civic engagement, such as incorporating citizenship education into students' curriculum with specific learning objectives, is vital.

According to Hall (1999), the themes of space and place are important in the context of social change, particularly for youth transitions that are becoming more diverse, yet uncertain and challenging for some. As traditional foundations for affiliation and belonging are shifting, youth work settings can serve as a valuable platform for young people to publicly express their interests and concerns, and gain wider involvement and understanding within their local community and beyond. Consequently, children and young people can be seen as semi-citizens, taking advantage of youth work as a stepping-stone towards full citizenship. Reference: Hall, T and Williamson, H. (1999) Citizenship and community. Leicester: Leicester Youth Work Press.

P2 2. Roche, J. (1999). Children's rights, involvement, and membership in society. Childhood, 6(45), 475-493. 3. Elizabeth F.

The source of this information is a journal article titled "Citizenship Studies" authored by Cohen in 2005. The article was published in Volume 9, Issue 2 by Routledge Press and spans across pages 221-240.

Two sources have been cited: Dahl, R (1989) who wrote about Equal Rights for Children and Furlong, A. and Cartmel, F. (1997)

who authored Young People and Social Change: Individualisation and Late Modernity.

Buckingham and Philadelphia's Open University Press is cited along with Morrow and Richards' work.

(1996) The shift to adulthood: is it influenced by family? This was explored in a publication by Yorks, YPS for Joseph Rowntree Foundation and also discussed in the book 'Social Identity' by Jenkins (1996) on page 135.

The text includes two references on the topic of youth and citizenship. The first one is from France in 1996 and is titled "Youth and citizenship in the 1990s," published in Youth and policy, issue 53, pages 28-43. The second reference is from Chisholm in 1997 and is a paper titled "Social citizenship, Europe and young people," presented at the Seminaire Citoyennete des Jeunes en Europe (Marly-le-Roi). Both references are enclosed in a

tag.

According to Congress Catalog Press (2005), Robert D. Hess, Judith V. Torney, and Judith Torney-Purta studied the evolution of political beliefs in children in the United States. Their findings are documented in the publication "The development of political attitudes in children," which is referenced as number 11.

The Oxford and Cambridge-based Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Thought authored by Miller, D. in 1995 also features the work of Pocock, J. G. in its 12th edition.The book "Theorizing Citizenship," edited by Roland Beiner and published by State University of New York Press in Albany in 1995, includes an essay titled "The Ideal of Citizenship Since Classical Times" written by A.