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Most common types of fallacies in public speeches

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Hasty generalizations, false cause, invalid analogy, ad hominem

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Hasty generalizations

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An error in reasoning from specific instances, in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence.

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false-cause fallacies

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the assumption that because two events occur together, one event has caused the other

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invalid analogies

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An analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike.

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ad hominem

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In an argument, this is an attack on the person rather than on the opponent's ideas. It comes from the Latin meaning "against the man."

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Benefits of organized speeches

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Easiser for audiences to follow & remember, speaker credibility also increases b/c audiences are more likely to view an organized individual as competent

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What serves as the starting point for developing main points?

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thesis statement

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Main points

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the major points made by a speaker in the body of the speech

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how many points do most speeches include

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two to five

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what are the recommended characteristics of the main points

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relevant & interesting to the audience, worded in parallel format, distinct with no overlap

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strategic organization

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arranging a speech in a specific way in order to achieve a specific result with a specific audience

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how is an organizational pattern determined

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by topic, purpose, and audience

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types of organizational patterns used most often in speeches

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topical, temporal, spatial, problem-solution, causal, motivated

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topical pattern

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pattern of organization that allows the speaker to divide a topic into subtopics, each of which addresses a different aspect of the larger topic

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temporal pattern

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A speech organization pattern in which the speaker presents information in chronological order, from beginning to end, with each main point addressing a particular time within the chronology.

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spatial order

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a method of speech organization in which the main points follow a directional pattern

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problem-solution pattern

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a pattern of organization that presents a problem and then provides possible solutions

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causal order

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a method of speech organization in which the main points show a cause-effect relationship

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motivated sequence

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a series of steps designed to propel a listener toward accepting the speaker's proposition

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five steps of a motivated sequence speech

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step 1 - gain attention from listeners step 2 - establish a need or a problem step 3 - satisfy a need by offering a solution step 4 - visualize the need of being satisfied in the future step 5 - ask for action from the audience to ensure the need is satisfied

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additional organizational patterns

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statement of reasons structure-function pro-and-con

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statement of reasons pattern

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want to leave the listener thinking about the most persuasive arguement, so structure puts strongest reason last, 2nd strongest first, and weakest in the middle of the body

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structure-function pattern

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well suited to informative speeches in which you want to discuss how something is constructed and what it does

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pro-and-con pattern

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advantages-disadvantages pattern - appropriate for both informative and persuasive speeches - discusses both the benefits and the drawbacks

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what percentage of the speech should the introduction be?

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around 10%

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six primary types of introductions

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startling statement, rhetorical questions, story, personal reference, quotation, suspense

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startling statement

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a sentence or two that grabs your listeners' attention by shocking them in some way.

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rhetorical questions

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a question that doesn't invite an actual response but just makes the audience think

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narrative

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an interesting story related to the main point of the speech

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personal reference

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an illustration of how the speech topic is relevant to the audience

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quotation

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an attention-getting or thought provoking quotation

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suspense

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wording that leaves the audience uncertain about the topic and raises listener curiosity

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primary functions of speech conclusions

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alert the audience that the speech is ending, summarize the speechm & reinforce the thesis, clarify what listeners should think or do in response to the speech

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crescendo ending

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a conclusion in which the speech builds to a zenith of power and intensity

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dissolve ending

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a conclusion that generates emotional appeal by fading step by step to a dramatic final statement

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anticipated response

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the response that a speaker seeks from listeners, such as what an audience member will remember or what they will think or do

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global plagiarism

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entire speech is stolen

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patchwork plagiarism

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copies word for word from two or three sources

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incremental plagiarism

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paraphrasing unique ideas of another without citing

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audience centeredness

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a concept where the audience is the primary consideration during speechmakin g

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audience identification

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process of forming a bond with listeners by pointing out common beliefs, experiences, and goals

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audience analysis

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process of acquiring info about an audience in order to adapt a speech

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ways speakers can learn about listeners

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conventional wisdom, direct observation, questionnaire, demographic audience analysis, situational audience analysis

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conventional wisdom

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popular opinion about issues and trends - gives general ideas about societal attitudes and interests

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direct observation

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assessing ideas about listeners by judging things such as clothing and appearance - try not to stereotype

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questionnaire

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distributed via email prior to speech to determine attitude

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two most useful ways to learn about an audience prior to speech

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demographic audience analysis, situational audience analysis

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demographic audience analysis

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learning about listeners based on age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, ethnicity, etc.

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situational audience analysis

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considers characteristics of an audience - size, physical setting, occasion, time - also anticipated audience viewpoint

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audience attitude

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refers to the mindset of listeners regarding a topic

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general purposes of speeches

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inform - increase audience awareness & knowledge persuade - change attitudes, behaviors, feelings, beliefs entertain - to amuse the audience

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methods of topic selection

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surveys, newspapers & magazines, brainstorming, tree diagram, topoi

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surveys

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discover current issues & trends

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newspapers & mags

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discover current events & issues people are concerned about

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brainstorming

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involves jotting down lists of topics

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tree diagram

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method of limiting a speech topic by repeatedly dividing a topic into smaller, more manageable parts

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topoi

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asking & answering questions to generate ideas

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characteristics of appropriate topics

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interesting to speaker, interesting and useful to audience, ethically appropriate and improve society, appropriate for the occasion

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specific purpose

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guide the direction of the speech and serve as one of the most critical early steps of the speechmaking process - should focus on one clear idea & should be stated in a brief infinitive phrase including general purpose, intended audience, exact goals ex: to inform my audience about the signs of skin cancer

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thesis statement

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central idea or theme of the speech

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residual message

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what a speaker hopes listeners will remember from a speech

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development of specific purpose & thesis statement

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specific purpose statement - developed early in the writing process, thesis statement - typically develops after research & analysis of the topic

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where in the speech should the thesis statement be presented

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in a persuasive speech with a neutral or positive audience - present early; with a hostile audience, provide supporting material and evidence before thesis statement

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Where would you research a topic that has been a significant issue for at least six months?

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book

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where do you research recent issues

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periodicals

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what do you call geographical dictionaries

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gazetteers

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What are the steps for conducting a successful interview

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1 determine purpose 2 write out questions that are intelligent and meaningful 3 choose an individual to interview & arrange appointment

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supporting material

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Verbal or visual material that clarifies, amplifies, and provides evidence to support the main ideas of a presentation.

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examples of persuasive evidence

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narratives, examples, testimonies, statistics, and quotations

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narratives

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stories told to illustrate an abstract concept & illustrate a point

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examples

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specific instances used to illustrate a larger group of people, ideas, or conditions

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testimonies

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opinions of experts or eye-witness accounts that support a speaker's claim

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statistics

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numerical data that clarify a speaker's point

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quotations

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explanations or opinions used verbatim in a speech

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what are the different types of narratives

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explanatory exemplary persuasive

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explanatory narrative

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explains events

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exemplary narrative

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provides examples of excellence

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persuasive narrative

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attempts to change attitudes

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types of examples

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brief, extended, actual, hypothetical

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brief examples

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also known as specific instances - typically one or two sentences in length

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extended examples

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at least three sentences in length

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actual examples

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those that describe real events

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hypothetical

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imaginary

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criteria for evaluating supporting material

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relevant & significant, easily understood, striking & unique, credible, ethical & accurate

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extrinsic proofs

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supports claims with objective evidence such as laws & confessions

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intrinsic proofs

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artistic proofs - based on the speakers character, the emotional nature of the issue, & the logic of the argument to persuade listeners

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types of persuasive appeals

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logos, ethos, pathos

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logos

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the appeal to reason or logic (rational evidence & arguments)

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ethos

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the persuasive appeal of a speaker's moral character & knowledge

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pathos

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the appeal to emotions

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what are the four primary types of arguments used in persuasive speeches

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argue from example, argue from analogy, argue from causation, argue from sign

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argue from example

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to support your claim, by providing one or more individual examples.

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argue from analogy

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illustrate the similarities b/w two things or events

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argue from causation

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draw a conclusion that an event that occurs first is responsible for a later event

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argue from sign

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use an observable symptom or indication as proof of a claim

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connectives

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words, phrases, and sentences used to lead from idea to idea and tie the parts of the speech together smoothly

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four types of connectives

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transitions, signposts, internal previews, internal summaries

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transitions

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words or phrases that indicate when a speaker is moving from one point to another

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signposts

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brief statements that indicate to the listener where the speaker is in the speech, sometimes they are numerical and sometimes they are questions - they also can signal that an important point is coming up

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internal previews

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a statement that tells the audience what to expect next - they are more detailed than transitions and signposts

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internal summary

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reviews the points that a speaker has just made

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denotative meaning

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literal and objective meaning found in a dictionary

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connotative meaning

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subjective and variable

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concrete words

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Words that refer to tangible objects that are easy to visualize

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abstract words

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Words that refer to ideas or concepts

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imagery

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vivid language included in a speech that creates mental images of experiences, objects, or concepts

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similes

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A comparision of two unlike things using like or as

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metaphors

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comparison between two unlike things WITHOUT using like or as

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methods of speech delivery

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speaking impromtu, speaking from a manuscript, speaking from memory, speaking extemporaneously

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speaking impromtu

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speech involving little to no specific or immediate preparation

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speaking from a manuscript

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entire speech is written out and read

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speaking from memory

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entire speech is written out and memorized

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speaking extemporaneaously

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speech is prepared and presented from a basic set of notes or an outline

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pitch

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relative highness or lowness of a speaker's voice - changing pitch and emphasizing certain words can help communicate ideas more effectively

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volume

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loudness or intensity of a speaker's voice

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rate

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speed at which a person talks

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quality

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tone or sound of a speaker's voice

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articulation

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movement of the tongue, palate, teeth, lips, jaw, and vocal cords to produce sounds

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pronunctiation

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the production of syllables in a word based on acceptable standards

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error of omission

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leaving off a sound or a syllable in a word, such as saying compny instead of company

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error of substitution

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substitutes an incorrect sound for a correct one - substituting d for t in better

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errors of addition

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adding unnecessary sounds to a word - athalete instead of athlete

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filled pauses

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filled with utterances, such as umm, ah, well - they should be avoided

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unfilled pauses

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can be used to a speaker's advantage when used to indicate transitions or for emphasis - should only last a couple of seconds

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hearing

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physical function that involves the ear picking up sound waves and sending them to the brain

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listening

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selective activity that involves paying close attention and interpreting what is heard

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five steps of the listening process

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receiving, understanding, remembering, evaluating, responding

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receiving

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hearing transmitted sounds and selecting the ones to attend to or ignore

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understanding

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assigning meaning to what was said with regard to the thought and emotion

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remembering

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retaining and recalling information that has been heard

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evaluating

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judging and criticizing the usefulness and truthfulness of a message

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responding

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answering and giving verbal and nonverbal feedback

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types of listening

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appreciative, empathetic, comprehensive, critical

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appreciative listening

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listening for pleasure - ex: music, a comic's jokes

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empathetic listening

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listening to give emotional support to the speaker - ex: listening to a friend's problems

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comprehensive listening

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listening to understand a message - ex: class lecture

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critical listening

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listening to evaluate a message then deciding to accept or reject the information - ex: jury member listening to a trial

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reasons for poor listening

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Primary reason - physical and mental distractions other reasons - focusing too hard on a message and trying to remember every detail rather than the overall theme, jumping to conclusions about what the speaker will say and not listening closely, speaker's personal appearance and delivery style earn more attention than the actual message

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characteristics of effective listening

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realize listening is active not passive, listening with empathy, listen with an open mind, listen for the total meaning of a message

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activities involved in active listening

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sitting up straight, remaining quiet, silently paraphrasing, taking notes, organizing ideas, developing questions, assessing the speakers organization, noticing the speakers nonverbal behaviors

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criticism

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process of evaluating a message and deciding whether it is believable, thorough, and valuable based on specific standards

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benefits of critcal analysis

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aids in sorting through the bombardment of messages that people receive each day to determine which information is relevant and honest, encourages people to maintain evaluation standards and to appreciate the creativity of others

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what should criticism of a speech be based upon

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established standards and principles of public speaking

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guidelines for giving speech criticism

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point out the positive more than the negative, give specific comments rather than general ones, be objective instead of biased, give constructive comments, structure comments as I - messages, consider ethical responsibilities

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