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Acoustic Encoding

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The encoding of sound, especially the sound of words. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 347)

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Algorithm

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* - A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Can be slow, but accurate. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 387)

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Amnesia

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* - The loss of memory. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 357)

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Anterograde Amnesia

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* - Involves the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia. (Weiten Psychology 7e p. 286) | * - The inability to form memories for new information.

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Artificial Intelligence

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The science of designing and programming computer systems to do intelligent things and to simulate human thought processes, such as intuitive reasoning, learning, and understanding language. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 398)

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Automatic Processing

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Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 344)

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Availability Heuristic

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* - Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 391)

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Babbling Stage

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Beginning at 3 to 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 405)

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Belief Bias

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The tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seems invalid. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 396)

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Belief Perseverance

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Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 397)

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Chunking

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* - Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 350)

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Clustering

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The tendency to remember similar or related items in groups.

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Cognition

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* - The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 386)

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Computer Neural Networks

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Computer circuits that mimic the brain's interconnected neural cells, performing tasks such as learning to recognize visual patterns and smells. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 399)

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Concept

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* - A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 386)

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Confirmation Bias

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* - A tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 388)

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Decay Theory

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* - Argues that forgetting is caused by the passage of time. No physiological mechanism to account for it has been identified. Forgetting is due to impermanent storage.

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Declarative Memory

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* - The part of long-term memory where factual information is stored, such as mathematical formulas, vocabulary, and life events. Also called explicit memory.

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Déjà Vu

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That eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 364)

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Echoic Memory

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A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 353)

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Effortful Processing

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Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 344)

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Elaborative Rehearsal

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* - A memorization method that involves thinking about how new information relates to information already stored in long-term memory. (Bernstein Psychology 8e p. 243) | * - A technique for improving memory by enriching the encoding of information. Processing a word deeply - by its meaning (semantic encoding).

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Encoding

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* - The processing of information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 341)

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Encoding Specificity Principle

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* - The value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code. (Weiten Psychology 7e p. 279) | * - The principle that subsequent retrieval of information is enhanced if cues received at the time of recall are consistent with those present at the time of encoding.

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Episodic Memory System

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Chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personal experiences. (Weiten Psychology 7e p. 288) | * - Type of long-term memory for personally experienced events, such as what you had for breakfast this morning, or autobiographical events and the contexts in which they occurred.

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Explicit Memory

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* - Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare". Also called declarative memory. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 358)

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Fixation

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The inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 389)

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Flashbulb Memory

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* - A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 341)

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Framing

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The way an issue is posed; how an issue is posed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 394)

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Functional Fixedness

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* - The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 389)

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Grammar

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In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 404)

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Heuristic

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* - A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 387)

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Hippocampus

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A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. Damage may result in the lose of ability to store new facts. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 359)

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Iconic Memory

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A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 353)

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Imagery

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Mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 348)

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Implicit Memory

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* - Retention independent of conscious recollection. Also called procedural memory. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 358)

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Insight

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* - (learning) - A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 387)

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Language

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* - Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 403)

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Language Acquisition Device

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Nativist Theory - Noam Chomsky - A process that facilitates the learning of language. We are biologically equipped to learn language. Language development is similar across cultures. Children develop at approximately the same rate. Language seems to be acquired quickly.

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Linguistic Determinism

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Benjamin Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 410)

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Linguistic Relativity

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The hypothesis that one's language determines the nature of one's thoughts. (Weiten Psychology 7e p. 308) | People who speak different languages perceive and think about the world quite differently.

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Long-term Memory

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* - The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 342)

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Long-term Potentiation

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* - An increase in a synapse's firing potential after a brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 356)

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Maintenance Rehearsal

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* - Involves rote repetition of an item's auditory representation by attending to its appearance or sound.

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Memory

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* - The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 340)

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Mental Set

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* - A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 389)

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Metalinguistic Awareness

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Involves the ability to reflect on the use of language. (puns and metaphors) (Weiten Psychology 7e p. 304)

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Misinformation Effect

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Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 372)

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Mnemonics

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* - Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 349)

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Mood-congruent Memory

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The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 364)

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Morpheme

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* - In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word (such as a prefix). (Myers Psychology 7e p. 404)

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Nondeclarative Memory System

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Houses memory for actions, skills, conditioned responses, and emotional responses. (Weiten Psychology 7e p. 288)

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One-word Stage

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The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 405)

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Overconfidence

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The tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 392)

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Overlearning

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Refers to continued rehearsal of material after you first appear to have it mastered. (Weiten Psychology 7e p. 291) | The amount remembered depends on the time spent learning. Even after we learn material, additional rehearsal increases retention.

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Phoneme

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* - In a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 403)

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Phonemic Code

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Emphasizes what a word sounds like. (Weiten Psychology 7e - p. 261)

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Primacy Effect

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* - A characteristic of memory in which recall of the first two or three items in a list is particularly good. (Bernstein Psychology 8e p. 252) | * - Improved memory for items at the start of a list.

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Priming

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* - The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 362)

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Proactive Interference

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* - The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 369)

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Procedural Memory

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* - Memories are those that relate to skills or habits, such as your memory of how to brush your teeth. Also called implicit memory.

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Prototype

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* - A mental image or best example of a category. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 386)

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Pseudoforgetting

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You can't really forget something you never learned. (Weiten Psychology 7e p. 278)

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Recall

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* - A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 362)

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Recency Effect

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A characteristic of memory in which recall is particularly good for the last few items in a list. (Bernstein Psychology 8e p. 252) | Improved memory for items at the end of a list.

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Recognition

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* - A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 362)

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Rehearsal

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The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 345)

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Relearning

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A memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 362)

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Representative Heuristic

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* - Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 390)

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Repression

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In psychoanalytical theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 371)

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Retrieval

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* - The process of getting information out of memory storage. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 341)

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Retroactive Interference

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* - The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 369)

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Retrograde Amnesia

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* - Involves the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia. (Weiten Psychology 7e p. 286) | * - The inability to remember information previously stored in memory.

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Schema

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An organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event. (Weiten Psychology 7e p. 271)

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Script

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A particular kind of schema. Organizes what people know about common activities.

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Semantic Code

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Emphasizes the meaning of verbal input; it involves thinking about the objects and actions the words represent. (Weiten Psychology 7e - p. 261)

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Semantic Encoding

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The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 347)

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Semantic Memory System

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* - General knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned. (Weiten Psychology 7e p. 289) | * - Type of long-term memory for general factual knowledge, such as the temperature at which water boils.

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Semantic Network

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Consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts. (Weiten Psychology 7e p. 271)

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Semantics

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* - The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 404)

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Sensory Memory

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* - The immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 342)

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Serial Position Effect

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* - Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 346)

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Short-term Memory

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* - Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 342)

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Source Amnesia

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Attributing to the wrong source an event that we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 374)

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Spacing Effect

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The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 345)

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State Dependent Memory

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* - The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

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Storage

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* - The retention of encoded information over time. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 341)

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Structural Code

answer

Relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus. (Weiten Psychology 7e - p. 261)

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Syntax

answer

* - The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 404)

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Telegraphic Speech

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* - Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram - "go car" - using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting "auxiliary" words. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 406)

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Two-word Stage

answer

Beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 406)

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Visual Encoding

answer

The encoding of picture images. (Myers Psychology 7e p. 347)

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Working Memory

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* - A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 352) | * - Similar concept to Short-term Memory that focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information. How we attend to, rehearse, and manipulate information in temporary storage.

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