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Learning

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any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or patience.

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Research suggests strongly..

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that once people learn something, it is always present somewhere in memory.

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Maturation

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change like an increase in height of the size of the brain

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Reflex

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an unlearned, involuntary response that's not under personal control or choice

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Stimulus

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any object, even, or experience that causes a response

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Response

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the reaction of the organism.

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In the case of Pavlov's dogs..

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-The food is the stimulus -The salivation is the response

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Classical conditioning

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learning to elicit an involuntary, reflex-like response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces it

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Unconditioned stimulus

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"unlearned" or "naturally occurring." This is the stimulus that ordinarily leads to the involuntary response. -In Pavlov's case, the food was the unconditioned stimulus

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Unconditioned response

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the automatic and involuntary response to the unconditioned stimulus. Is is unlearned and occurs because of genetic "wiring" in the nervous system. -In Pavlov's, the salivation is the UCR

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Neutral stimulus

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it has no affect on the response

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Conditioned stimulus

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"learned" stimulus. The neutral stimulus becomes this

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The repeated pairing of a a NS and the UCS is usually called..

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acquisition, because the organism is in the process of acquiring learning.

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An unconditioned stimulus..

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is always followed by an unconditioned response

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A conditioned stimulus..

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is always followed by a conditioned response.

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The CS must..

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come before the UCS

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Stimulus Generalization

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the tendency to respond to a stimulus that's only similar to the original conditioned stimulus

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Extinction

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when the conditioned response "dies out"

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Once people learn something..

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it's almost impossible to "unlearn" it.

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Learning is..

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relatively permanent

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Spontaneous recovery

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the conditioned response can briefly reappear when the original CS returns, although the response is usually weak and short-lived.

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Higher-order conditioning

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occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus. The strong CS can actually play the part of a UCS, and the previously neutral stimulus becomes a second conditioned stimulus.

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Expectancy

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created by pairing the tone or its absence with the shock that determined the particular response of the rats.

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Cognitive perspective

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Mental activity of consciously expecting something to occur, an example of an explanation for classical conditioning.

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Conditioned Emotional Response:

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John B. Watson classic experiment with "Little Albert"

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Conditioned emotional response definition

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learning of phobias is a good example of classical conditioning. Some of the easiest forms to accomplish and our lives are full of them.

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Vicarious conditioning

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simply watching someone else respond to a stimulus in this process

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Conditioned taste aversion

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nausea to any liquid or food they swallow up to 6 hours before

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Fear is a..

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natural emotional response that has ties to survival.

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Operant conditioning

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based on the research of Edward L. Throndike and B.F. Skinner

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Edward L. Thorndike

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was one of the first researchers to explore and attempt to outline the laws of learning voluntary responses

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Law of effect

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Thorndike developed this. If an action is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated. If it's responded by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend to not be repeated.

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B.F. Skinner

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was the behaviorist who assumed leadership of the field after John Watson

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Voluntary behavior, for Skinner..

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is operant behavior

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Operant conditioning..

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"If I do this, what's in it for me?"

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Reinforcers

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items or events, that hen following a response will strengthen it.

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Primary reinforcer

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any kind of food, liquid, or touch are examples.

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Secondary reinforcer

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such as money

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Positive reinforcement

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the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experience of a pleasurable consequence such as a reward or pat on the back.

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Negative reinforcement

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following a response with the removal or escape from something unpleasant will also increase the likelihood of that response being repeated.

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Partial reinforcement effect

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a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses. Will be more resistant.

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Continuous reinforcement

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a reinforcer for each and ever correct response. Doesn't work as well as partial reinforcement effect.

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Interval schedule

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when the timing of the response is more important

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Ratio schedule

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when it is the number of responses that are important

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Fixed interval schedule of reinforcement

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in which a reinforcer is received after a certain, fixed interval of time has passed.

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A fixed internal schedule does not..

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produce a fast rate of responding

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Variable interval schedule of reinforcement

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Pop quizzes are an example.

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Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement

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the number of responses required to receive each reinforcer will always be the same number.

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Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement

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is one in which the number of responses changes from one trial to the next.

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Delaying reinforcement tends to...

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not work, especially when dealing with animals and small children.

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Punishment

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opposite of reinforcement. It's any event or stimulus that, when following a response, causes the response to be less likely to happen again.

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Punishment weakens..

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response

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Reinforcement (no matter positive or negative) strengthens..

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response

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Positive reinforcement...

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the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experience of a pleasurable consequence

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Negative reinforcement...

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the reinforcement of a response by the removal or escape from an unpleasant consequence.

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Negative reinforcement strengthens a response but..

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punishment weakens a response

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Punishment by application

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occurs when something unpleasant is added to the situation or applied.

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Punishment by removal

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behavior is punished by the removal of something pleasurable or desired after the behavior occurs. -Example: grounding

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Children who are spanked..

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are more likely to use aggression

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Discriminative stimulus

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any stimulus that provides an organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement. -Example: a police car is a discriminative stimulus for slowing down

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Extinction:

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classical conditioning involves the removal of the UCS, the unconditioned stimulus that eventually acts as a reinforcer

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Spontaneous recovery

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the recurrence of a conditioned response after extinction

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Shaping

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in which small steps toward some ultimate goal are reinforced until the goal itself it reached. -Example: teaching animals tricks

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Successive approximation

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the goal is achieved by reinforcing each small step

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Instinctive drift

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the Brelands called this tendency to reverty to genetically controlled patterns

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Behavior modification

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refers to the application of operant conditioning to bring such changes

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Token economy

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the use of tokens to modify behavior.

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Applied behavior analysis

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the modern term for a form of behavior modification that uses both analysis of current behavior and behavioral techniques to mold a desired behavior or response.

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Biofedback

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the traditional term used to describe this kind of biological feedback of information, and through its use many problems can be relieved or controlled

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Neurofeedback

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involved trying to change brain-wave activity

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Cognition

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the mental events that take place inside a person's mind while behaving, began to dominate experimental psychology.

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Latent learning

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the idea that learning could happen without reinforcement and then later affect behavior, was not something traditional operant conditioning could explain.

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Kohler's Smart Chimp:

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smart chimp that used insight to collect food

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Insight

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determined that insight could no be gained through trial-and-error learning alone.

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Positive psychology

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a new way of looking at the entire concept of mental health and therapy that focuses on the adaptive, creative, and psychologically more fulfilling aspects of human experience rather than on mental disorders.

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Dog Experiment:

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Previously conditioned dogs just sat there when tone sounded

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Ventromedial prefrontal cortex

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research suggests that a higher-level area, part of the frontal lobe, able to help determine what is controllable.

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Learned helplessness

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the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past, to explain depression.

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Bandura's Classic Study:

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Children who watched adults display agression on Boba's dolls also were agressive toward them.

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Learning/performance distinction

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the fact that learning can take place without actual performance

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Four Elements of Observational Learning:

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-Attention -Memory -Imitation -Desire

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While correlations don't prove that viewing violence on TV is the cause of increased violence...

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one cannot help but be curious as to the effects

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