Lecture 1: History of Botanical Medicine – Flashcards

Selective egg?laying behavior, in which they preferentially lay their eggs in high?ethanol food when parasitoid wasps are detected.

Selective egg?laying behavior, in which monarchs with heavy parasite loads selectively lay their eggs on milkweeds (Asclepias spp., Apocynaceae) the produce high levels of cardenolides.

Selective plant resin accumulation behavior, in which the antimicrobial resins of conifer trees are incorporated into the nest.

Selective ingestion of plant toxin behavior, in which parasitized caterpillars ingest large amounts of anti?parasitic pyrrolizidine alkaloid, resulting in increased survival.

Leaf swallowing behavior, in which whole leaves are swallowed (e.g. Aspilia spp., Asteraceae), has been linked to removal of intestinal parasites, such as nematodes and tapeworm.

Bitter pith chewing behavior, in which the pith of young shoots of Vernonia amygdalina Delile, Asteraceae are chewed to release a bitter juice that is ingested. This juice is rich in sesquiterpene lactones (vernodaline and vernonioside B1) that have exhibited anthelmintic, anti?amoebic, anti?tumor and antibiotic properties.

branch of paleontology that focuses on the recovery and identification of plant remains.

early homonids used plants for medicinal purposes as long as 60,000 years ago. Pollen samples from the site include several medicinal genera, including Althaea, Senecio, Achillea, Centaurea, Ephedra and Muscari. Usage of hollycock(Althaea rosea (L.) Cav.; Syn. Alcea rosea L., Malvaceae), which is used now in N Iraq for spasms, toothaches, and inflammation.

used birch polypore fungus (Piptoporus betulinus (Bull. ex Fr.) P. Karst., Fomitopsidaceae) as a purgative to treat his helminthic infection.

3,500 yr old Ancient Egyptian prescriptions written in hieroglyphs. example of remedy= asthma remedy w herb mixture to be heated on a brick and the fumes inhaled by the patient; ~1550 BCE; bought by Georg Ebers in 1872; 110pg scroll, 20 meters long, ~700 magical formulas and remedies

~200 BCE; 365 drugs, most of plant origin; book no longer exists and parts are found in later compilations

collection of 60 texts from c400BCE- 200CE that emerged from Hippocrates of Kos' teaching ("Father of Western Medicine," and credited with writing an Oath, or the Hippocratic Oath= still used by med students). 60 texts going back to 5-4th centuries BC, united under common theory of medicine. Made crucial links between diet and health, and dietary restrictions were especially important. 44 plants identified as useful in medicinal applications, and describe 22 of these as useful dietary treatments. food played important roles in allopathy, with cold foods being used to treat hot diseases, and dry foods being used to treat wet diseases (based on attributions assigned within the system)

recognizes disease as a natural, rather than magico-spiritual, process. formed foundation of allopathy (opposities cure opposities) in contrast to homeopathy (like cures like) the diet, and dietary restrictions were important to Hippocratic medicine

never.. BUT! it describes the underlying theme of the materia medica cited in his teachings, many including plants consumed as both food and medicine

humors; humors were black bile, blood, yellow bile, and phlegm. each had discrete qualities: earth, air, fire, and water.

pharmacology, or the science of drugs, including their origin, while many medical treatises existed in written, composition, therapeutic use and toxicology.

De Materia Medica (On Medical Material), a five volume book which served as the precursor for all subsequent pharmacopoeias. he was a physician and botanists who traveled wiith Nero's army around the Mediterranean richly illustrated w drawings of plant ingredients used in ancient medical formulae.

1000 natural products with 4,740 uses and 360 preventive and therapeutic actions. pharmacognosy report- not entailing much medical theory. THE guide to drugs for the next 1,600 years. incorporated into later European herbals and in Avicenna's Cannon of Medicine!!

AKA Galen; Greek physician of the Roman Empire. built on theory or humorism, which was first introduced under Hoppocratic period, by linking four temperaments to humoral scheme (bilious , melancholic , phlegmatic , and sanguine ) took the best works of Hippocrates (empirical and book based schools) transformed humoral theory into rigid therapeutic dogma food as well as medicine assigned spots of hot.cold, wet/dry axes;; simples (medicines of one quality) ;; composites (major and minor quality).

Persian polymath. author of al?Q?n?n f? a???ibb, or Canon of Medicine

text served as the leading medical authority for centuries, and was used as the standard textbook in European schools of medicine until the end of the 18th century. Composed of five books, the encyclopedia of medicine and pharmacology was heavily influenced by the medical theory developed by Galen and the pharmaceutical work of Dioscorides. key feature= divides materia medica into "simples"(or, drugs nor prepared in combo with other substances, and 800 of these, which are composed of pants, minerals, or plant products, are listed in Book 2, ) and "compound" drugs. book 5 (formulary)= collection of 650 compound drugs which were attributed to varying sources (greek, indian, arabic, etc) and included comments and suggestions on alterations to compound drug recipes.

"The drug must be free from any acquired quality." [The drug should not be exposed to heat or cold or stored close to other substances.] "The experiment must be done on a single, not a composite, condition." [The drug should not be tested on a patient with multiple illnesses.] "The drug must be tested on two contrary conditions. If it is effective on both, we cannot judge which condition benefited directly from the drug." [While a drug may act directly on one disease, that it may also relieve the symptoms of another disease.] "The potency of the drug should be equal to the strength of the disease." [The dose or potency of the therapy impact the outcome of treatment.] "One should consider the time needed for the drug to take effect. If the drug has an immediate effect, this shows that it has acted against the disease itself." [The time required for activity following administration of the drug can indicate its efficacy against the disease.] "The effect of the drug should be the same in all cases or, at least, in most. If that is not the case, the effect is then accidental, because things that occur naturally are always or mostly consistent." [Experiments should be repeatable, with drug effects observed in multiple cases.] "Experiments should be carried out on the human body. If the experiment is carried out on the bodies of [other animals] it is possible that it might fail for two reasons: the medicine might be hot compared to the human body and be cold compared to the lion's body or the horse's body ... The second reason is that the quality of the medicine might mean that it would affect the human body differently from the animal body ..." [Drugs do not always act in the same way in humans as in animal models]

1892 drugs and more than 11000 recipes 53 volumes specific details concerning prep and application of 1094 herbs

Li Shizen

1734 formulae

studied and identified plant species described by Discorides nearly 1500 years earlier

Italian physician and naturalist Pietro Andrea

Arabic medicine influenced Euro schools of thought! 8-11th century Arabic medical texts surpassed tose of Europe in # and content (bot drugs and diet therapy) medieval hospitals commonly run by monks who used herbs grown in Monastery gardens medical care was PREVENTIVE and center of manipulation of diet, exercise, and rest. complexionate therapy was a PROCESS, not an event MEDIEVAL PHARMACY: used many common plants from Apiaceae (carrots, fennel); Amaryllidacaeae (onions and garlic); Asteraceae (chamomile) -- spice trade was KEY; foreign spices often used as medicine (cumin, ginger, black pepper)

1. Congenital disorders 2. Trauma/Injury 3. Complexional imbalances

health defined as a tension of the solid, constituent fibers of the body's hollow blood vessels and nerves food assigned to chem categories: alkaline, acid, acrid, oily, spiritous, viscous, aqueous, salty -; relevant to their medicinal uses

Cephalis ipecacuanha (ipecac) Cinchona spp. (quinine bark tree) Theobroma cacao (chocolate) Nicotiniana tobacum (tobacco) Erythroxylum coca (coca)

rise in appeal of "natural" food as medicine was popular high public demand for mixtures, pills, emetics, lotions, and bleedings- time of mixing of popular and learned medicine. 1776: william smith's sure guide in sickness and health, in the choice of food and use of medicine-- food is either "simple" nourishing the body and restoring its parts of "medicinal" capable of changing the body's disposition.

home care and women :D

created paradigm shift, separating illness from patient idea peaked in 1700, then declined and emerged agagin in 1830 (when world of "little animals" was discovered via microscopy)!! ;- as opposed to spontaneous generation! Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, Joseph Lister brought

Biblical laws regarding basic sanitation since the time of Moses (burying solid waste) Hippocrates seminal work (Corpus) describes sanitary surgical procedures ; realized disease could be transferred from person to person through inanimate objects (such as clothing) Varro (Roman from 1st century BC) proposed that tiny animals entered the body through mouth and nose to cause disease Until 17th century A.D., the advance of microbiology was hampered by inability to see microbes 1665 - Robert Hooke built a compound microscope Described the holes that he saw in small slices of cork as "cells"

made high quality lenses in 1670s and observed "animalcules", which were later considered major kinds of microorganisms (algae, bacteria, protozoa, yeast, fungi)

cells are the fundamental units of life and carry out all of the basic functions of living things Theory still applies to all cellular organisms, but not to viruses.

microorganisms (germs) can invade other organisms and cause disease. Widely accepted today

microorganisms arise from nonliving things (such as maggots in rotting meat) No longer accepted (after years of experiments)

disproved spontaneous generation theory with swan necked flask experiment developed technique of pasteurization to kill unwanted microorganisms contributed to germ theory of diseases by establishing association of specific organisms with particular diseases (in silkworms) vaccine devo (rabies)

Identified the bacterium that causes Anthrax Found a way to grow bacteria in pure cultures (helped by Angelina Hesse who suggested using agar) Developed tuberculin (failed as a vaccine) but was later useful in development of a skin test diagnostic for tuberculosis Established 4 rules (postulates) for scientists to follow in establishing the germ theory of disease - called Koch's Postulates

Ignaz Semmelweis (Austrian) recognized connections between autopsies and childbed fever. Attempts to encourage sanitary procedures were ridiculed and he ended up in an asylum. Joseph Lister (British) read of work by Pasteur and Semmelweis and used diluted carbolic acid on bandages and instruments - he was also ridiculed, but eventually the decline in surgical wound infections in his ward proved his techniques effective

Defined by technical detail -anything lacking specific diagnosis & treatment modes excluded (ie. Foods as an important component to medicine) Overall devaluation of folk knowledge -or common knowledge not proven in the laboratory. Under this new worldview of health: Food = homemaking Disease specific medicines = science Medical practice taken out of hands of lay folk -only qualified medical personnel acceptable Physician?patient encounter was: Removed from home to an institutional setting, where food no longer has a therapeutic role Shortened in terms of human?contact and time Huge increase in # of hospitals (25?fold) and beds (14?fold) from 1870?1910, although US population only grew by 2.4?fold Advances in chemotherapy (the magic bullet solution to disease, e.g. Salvorsan, Prontosil(sulfonamides), Penicillin) in early 1900's

Throughout human history, knowledge of how to use environmentalresources for food, medicine, shelter, tools and so on has been passed down from generation to generation in oral form. We see only fragments of this complex history of TEK in the above mentioned written historical records. When TEK is not passed down to the next generation, be it in oral or written form, this knowledge is lost forever.

"a cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs, handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment".

derived from the root words ethno (culture) and botany (plants). The term refers to the scientific study of the relationships between plants and people, also described as the "science of survival".

research the past, present and future uses of plants in cultures across the globe. they help convert this oral knowledge to written form. Such knowledge can then be accessed in the future as humankind encounters new challenges to survival in an ever?changing ecosystem due to growing trends in antibiotic?resistant infectious diseases, climate change and food insecurity.

alkaloid

cyclic nitrogen

morphine, quinine, salicin, atropine, caffeine, coniine, emetine, strychnine, tubocurarine.

Papaver somniferum(opium poppy)Identified in 1804, chemically characterized in 1817 as an alkaloid, and full structure id. In 1923

Cinchona succirbura(and other spp.) cinchona barkIsolated in 1820, structure elucidated in 1880s

Salix spp. (willow bark) Isolated in Germany, then salicylic acid derived in 1838 and acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) in 1899

Atropa belladonna (belladonna) in 1833

Coffea arabica(coffee shrub) isolated in 1821, structure elucidated in 1882

Conium maculatum(hemlock) -highly poisonous, isolated in 1826. 1stalkaloid to have its structure elucidated (1870)

Cephaelis ipecacuanha(ipecacuhuana) -isolated in 1817 and characterized in 1948

Strychnos spp. (1817)

ChondrodendrontomentosumRuiz & Pav. -source of arrow poison, causes muscular paralysisStructure of complex alkaloid elucidated in 1947

Medicines isolated and purified from plant (e.g. morphine, quinine, ephedrine) Structures determined Lead to synthesis of drugs, sometimes better than original Study of medicinal plants fallen in late 20th thought most already screened costly and lengthy approval processes biochemistry makes it easier still less effective than natural sources DSHEA act, 1994 allowed sale of herbal products as "dietary supplements" without health claims

drug= aspirin

drug= codeine, morphine, dextromethorphan

drugs: novocaine, lidocaine

quinine

artemisinin + derivatives

digoxin

ephedrine and pseudoephedrine

atropine

metformin

tubocurarine derivatives

sodium cromoglycate

In early 1900's, the leading causes of death were pneumonia, tuberculosis & enteritis (CVD was 5th and cancer 8th) Since 1950, CVD and cancers have been leading causes of morbidity and mortality Food is beginning to get more attention for its impact on health (especially concerning negative impacts)

Little attention paid to nutritional deficiencies in past1940's -vitamins became the new magic bulletVitamin?fortified foods (especially processed foods, ie. margarine, cookies, cereals) became trendy2000's -the era of trendy 'superfoods'?

seeks to understand how people use plants for medicine, and then use that information to target specific medicinal species and design experimental strategies to isolate and identify bioactive compounds of interest. principal assumption of this approach is that indigenous uses of plants offer strong clues to their biological activity and offers a highly targeted strategy for identifying species with compounds of medicinal interest.

In some parts of the world, up to 80% of the population is reliant on plant based medicines as a primary form of healthcare. Estimated ~450,000 plant species on Earth Kew 2017 Report on State of the World's Plants found that ;28,167 medicinal plants (Most of these have never been studied in a scientific laboratory setting)