117 things to know before the ap environmental exam – Flashcards
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negative feedback
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a type of feedback that occurs when the systems response is the opposite direction of the output. is self regulating, slows down and stabilizes
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positive feedback
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occurs when an increase in output leads to a further increase in output. accelerates and tends to destabilize. "the more you have the more you get"
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biosphere
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portion of the earth that supports life. the planetary system that includes and sustains life, and therefore is made up of the atmosphere, oceans, soils, upper bedrock, and all life
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population age structure
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a population divided into groups by age. sometimes the groups represent the actual number of each age in the population; sometimes the groups represent the percentage or proportion of each age. also is important in determining future growth of a population.
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doubling time
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the amount of time it takes for a population to double. formula is 70/growth rate
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exponential population growth
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a population growing at a constant percentage per unit period of time
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demographic transition
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the pattern of change in birth and death rates as a country is transformed from undeveloped to developed. there are 3 stages 1) in an undeveloped country, birth and death rates are high and the growth rate is low 2) death rate decreases, but the birthrate remains high, and the growth rate is high 3) the birthrate drops toward the death rate and the growth rate therefore also decreases
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life expectancy
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the average number of years an individual can expect to live given their present age
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age of first childbearing
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one of the simplest methods of controlling population growth is to delay this
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macronutrients
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required in large amounts by living organisms. the "big six" are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. other minor examples are calcium, sodium, and potassium
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micronutrients
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required in small or moderate amounts. examples include cobalt, selenium, and zinc
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limiting factor
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when a nutrient is in short supply it becomes a ___. It prevents the growth of an individual, population, or species
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elements with a gaseous phase
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cycle much faster than those that do not such as calcium, phosphorus, and iron)
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combustion and respiration
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cycle gaseous CO2
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photosynthesis
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process used by plants that takes CO2 and H20 to create glucose (C6H12O6)
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nitrogen
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element essential to life because it is necessary for the manufacture of proteins and DNA. most abundant gas in the atmosphere
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nitrogen fixation
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the process of converting N2 into ammonia or nitrate (N2--> NO3)
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denitrification
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the conversion of nitrate to molecular nitrogen by the action of bacteria. an important step in the nitrogen cycle (NO3--> N2)
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legume family
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plants in the ___ contain special symbiotic bacteria that are nitrogen fixers
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food chains and food webs
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show the linkages that exist between organisms that are the same number of feeding levels away from the original source of energy
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autotrophs
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an organism that produces its own food from inorganic compounds and a source of energy. They are usually plants but can be bacteria. on the first trophic level. most of these organisms carry out photosynthesis or chemosynthesis
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first law of thermodynamics
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energy is neither created nor destroyed (law of conservation of energy)
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second law of thermodynamics
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energy always tends to go from a usable form to a less usable form. transfers of energy are never 100% efficient
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keystone species
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a species that has a large effect on its community or ecosystem. ex: a sea lion
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biological diversity
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used loosely to mean the variety of life on the earth, but scientifically typically used to consist of three components: 1) genetic diversity- the total number of genetic characteristics 2) species diversity 3) habitat or ecosystem diversity- the number of kinds of habitats or ecosystems in a given unit area.
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cambrian period
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the first major period of multicellular life
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mutation, migration, geographic isolation
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combined with natural selection, these three things can create new species
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competitive exclusion principle
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states that two species that have exactly the same requirements cannot coexist in the same environment
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habitat
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where an organism lives and its ecological niche is its role in the ecosystem
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biome
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large region that has certain climatic similarity. an ecosystem that occurs in many parts of the world but are not all connected with each other
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convergent evolution
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the process by which species evolve in different places or different times and, although they have different genetic heritages, develop a similar external forms and structures as a result of adaptation to similar environments.
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divergent evolution
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organisms with the same ancestral genetic heritage migrate to different habitats and evolve into species with different external forms and structures, typically continue to use the same kind of habitats
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adaptive radiation
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the process that occurs when a species enters a new habitat that has unoccupied niches and evolves into a group of new species, each adapted to one of these niches
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primary productivity
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the production carried out by autotrophs
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heterotrophs
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must consume to survive (animals)
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secondary production
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production carried out by heterotrophs
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net production
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gross production-respiration=
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trophic level efficiency
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a measure of energy efficiency
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green plants
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only convert 1-3% of sunlight into new biomass
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entropy
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generally, 90% of the energy entering a food web is lost as heat
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lower on the food chain
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the earth could support more people if we ate lower on the food chain
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climax stage
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the final stage of ecological succession and therefore an ecological community that continues to reproduce itself over time
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primary succession
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the initial establishment and development of an ecosystem where one did not exist previously
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secondary production
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the reestablishment of an ecosystem following disturbances
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facilitation
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when an early successional species prepares the way for later successional species
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malnourishment
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results from a lack of a specific chemical component in food (proteins, vitamins, etc)
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undernourishment
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results from a lack of sufficient calories
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rangeland
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provides food for grazing and browsing animals
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aquaculture
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the farming of marine and freshwater environments to increase seafood production
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mariculture
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the farming of ocean fish
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monoculture
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an are planted with a single species. trades of long-term stability for the opportunity to have very high production per year
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repeated planting
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the constant planting of a single species that may reduce the soil's fertility
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crop rotation
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a series of different crops planted successfully in the same field, with the field occasionally left fallow or left with a cover crop
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fallow field
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a field not planted with a particular food crop
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cover crop
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grows in a fallow field
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synergistic effect
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a change in availability of one resource affects the response of an organism to some other resources
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green revolution
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post WWII programs that have led to the development of new strains of crops with higher yields
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polyculture
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the planting of a mixture of crops at a particular time and place. produces more stable agricultural fields
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GMC's
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genetically modified crops. has given rise to environmental controversies as well as a promise of increased agricultural production
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environmental problems that result from agriculture
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soil erosion; sediment transport; fertilizer, pesticide, and herbicide runoff; pollution of ecosystems; desertification; overuse and pollution of groundwater; toxic metal buildup; loss of biodiversity
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contour plowing
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plowing land along topographic contours, as much in a horizontal plane as possible, therefore decreasing soil erosion rate
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no-till agriculture
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stems and roots are left in the field and allowed to decay in place
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narrow spectrum pesticides
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kill only a single insect pest
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broad range pesticides
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kill a variety of pests as well as beneficial insects
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integrated pest management
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uses a combination of methods to control pests. include: 1) certain chemical pesticides 2) planting crops in a maze-like pattern to confuse insects 3) no till agriculture 4) biological control of pests
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siluiculture
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the profession of growing trees
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old growth forest
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a virgin forest
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second growth forest
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forests that have been cut and regrown
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shelterwood-cutting
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the practice of cutting dead and less desirable trees first
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clear cutting
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the cutting of all trees in a stand at the same time
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seed-tree cutting
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removes all but a few mature seed trees
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selective cutting
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the practice of cutting some, but not all, trees. leaving some on the site
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strip cutting
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the practice of cutting narrow rows of forest, leaving wooded corridors
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firewood
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63% of all wood produced in the world is for __
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Endangered Species Act of 1973
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defined endangered as any species which is in danger of extinction
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threatened species
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any species which is likely to become endangered
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synergism
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the interaction of different substances resulting in a total effect greater tan the sum of the effects of the separate substances
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biomagnification
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also called biological concentration. the tendency for some substances to concentrate with each trophic level. organisms preferentially store certain chemicals and excrete others. when this occurs consistently among organisms, the stored chemicals increase as a percentage of the body weight as the material is transferred along a food chain or trophic level. accumulation or increase in concentration of a substance in living tissue as it moves through a food chain
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Persistent Organic Pollutants
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POP's. are polluting and toxic, soluble in fat, and can be transported by wind, water, and sediments
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Hormonally Active Agents
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HAA's. have the potential to cause developmental and reproductive abnormalities in humans
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particulates
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small particles of dust released into the atmosphere by natural and human processes. number 1 pollutant by volume
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asbestos
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an elongated fiber that is in building materials and is believed to be carcinogenic
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oxygen
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most abundant element in the earth's core
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acid rain
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rain made artificially by pollutants, SO2 and NO2 react with water to produce this
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troposphere
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where most pollutants are found
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cogeneration
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the capture and use of waste heat
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fossil fuels
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forms of stored solar energy created from incomplete biological decomposition of dead organic matter. includes coal, oil and natural gas
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strip mining
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surface mining in which the overlying layer of rock and soil is stripped off to reach the resource.
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allowance trading
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approach to managing coal resources and reducing pollution through buying, selling, and trading of allowances to emit pollutants from burning coal
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photovoltaic cells
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convert sunlight directly into energy
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mountain passes, along coastline, and on the plains
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best places for wind power
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biomass energy
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energy recovered from dead biological material or waste
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fission reactor
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use U235 and split Uranium atoms to produce energy
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burner reactor
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a type of nuclear reactor that consumes more fissionable material than it produces
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breeder reactors
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a type of nuclear reactor that utilizes between 40 and 70% of its nuclear fuel and converts fertile nuclei to fissile nuclei faster than the rate of fission. actually produces nuclear fuels
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fusion reactors
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combines lighter elements (hydrogen) to create heavier ones (helium) with the release of energy. makes energy like the sun
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groundwater
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found below the water table in the zone of saturation
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agricultural use
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the biggest use for H2O
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biochemical oxygen demand
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(BOD) a measure of the amount of oxygen necessary to decompose organic material in a unit of volume of water. as the amount of organic waste in water increases, more oxygen is used, resulting in a higher ___
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cryptosporibium
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protozoan disease in drinking water
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coliform test
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a standard test for determining water quality. measures fecal coliform bacteria which come from animal and human large intestines
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principle greenhouse gasses
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CO2, Methane, CFC's, Nitrous Oxides, Water Vapor
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water vapor
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number one greenhouse gas
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particulate matter
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number one air pollutant
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principal air pollutants
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O3 (ozone)- respiratory irritant SO2 (sulfur dioxide)- forms smog, attack lungs NO2, NO (nitrous oxides) " " CO (carbon monoxide)- binds to hemoglobin
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photochemical smog
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produced when pollutants react with sunlight and water
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radon gas
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a naturally produced substance that comes from bedrock and causes lung cancer
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UVB
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is hazardous to living things and is blocked by stratospheric ozone
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polar stratospheric clouds
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remove nitrogen from the atmosphere, increase the production of destructive chlorine which removes O3 and account for the spring ozone holes in the polar regions
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HFC's and HCFC's
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are substitutes for CFC's
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externality
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an indirect cost not normally accounted for in the cost-revenue analysis. ex: if someone kills whales, the area loses whale watching tourist boats that bring people in
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ecological island
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an area that is biologically isolated so that a species occurring within the area cannot mix with any other population of the same species. ex: a city park
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urban areas
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are warmer and is said that a heat island exists because of: -more fuels used -darker surfaces that absorb heat -less evaporation due to water being covered by pavement
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paper
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number one waste in the US
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leachate
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noxious mineralized liquid capable of transporting bacterial pollutants. produced when water infiltrates through waste material and becomes contaminated and polluted
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deep-well disposal
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method of disposal of hazardous liquid waste that involves pumping the waste deep into the ground below and completely isolated from all freshwater aquifers. a controversial method of waste disposal that is being carefully evaluated
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abortion rate
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the estimated number of abortions per 1000 women aged 15-44 in a given year
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abortion ratio
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the estimated number of abortions per 1000 live births in a given year
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acid mine drainage
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refers to acidic water that drains from mining areas. The acidic water may enter surface water resources, causing environmental damage
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active solar energy systems
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direct use of solar energy that requires mechanical power; usually consists of pumps and other machinery to circulate air, water, or other fluids from solar collectors to a heat sink where the heat may be stored
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advanced wastewater treatment
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treatment of wastewater beyond primary and secondary procedures. may include sand filters, carbon filters, or the application of chemicals to assist in removing potential pollutants such as nutrients from the wastewater stream
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aerobic
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characterized by the presence of free oxygen
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aesthetic justification for the conservation of nature
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an argument for the conservation of nature on the grounds that nature is beautiful and that beauty is important and valuable to people
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age dependency ratio
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the ratio of dependent-age people (those unable to work) to working-age people.
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agroecosystem
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an ecosystem created by agriculture. typically, it has low genetic, species, and habitat diversity
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air quality standards
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levels of air pollutants that delineate acceptable levels of pollution over a particular time period. valuable because they are often tied to emission standards that attempt to control air pollution
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alpha particles
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one of the two types of nuclear radiation, consisting of two protons and two neutrons (a helium nucleus)
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alternative energy
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renewable and nonrenewable energy resources that are alternatives to fossil fuels
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anaerobic
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characterized by the absence of free oxygen
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aquaculture
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production of food from aquatic habitats
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aquifer
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an underground zone or body of earth material from which groundwater can be obtained from a well at a useful rate
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area sources
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sometimes called nonpoint sources. These are diffused sources of pollution such as urban runoff or automobile exhaust. These sources include emissions that may be over a broad area or even over an entire region. They are often difficult to isolate and correct because of the widely dispersed nature of the emissions
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atmosphere
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layer of gasses surrounding earth
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atmospheric inversion
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a condition in which warmer air is found above cooler air, restricting air circulation; often associated in urban areas with a pollution event
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average residence time
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a measure of time it takes for a given part of the total pool or reservoir of a particular material in a system to be cycled through the system. When the size of the pool and rate of throughput are constant, is equal to the ratio of the total size of the pool
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balance of nature
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an environmental myth that states that the natural environment, when not influenced by human activity, will reach a constant status, unchanging over time, also called an equilibrium state
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barrier island
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an island separated from the mainland by a salt marsh. it generally consists of a multiple system of beach ridges, and is separated from other barrier islands by inlets that allow the exchange of seawater with lagoon water
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becquerel
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the unit commonly used for radioactive decay in the international system (SI) of measurement
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beta particles
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one of the three major kinds of nuclear radiation; electrons that are emitted when one of the protons or neutrons in the nucleus of an isotope spontaneously changes
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biogeochemical cycle
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the cycling of a chemical element through the biosphere; its pathways, storage locations, and chemical forms in living things, the atmosphere, oceans, sediments, and lithosphere
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biogeography
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the large-scale geographic pattern in the distribution of species, and the causes and history of this distribution
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biohydromettalurgy
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combining biological and mining processes, usually involving microbes to help extract valuable metals such as gold from the ground. may also be used to remove pollutants from mining waste
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biological control
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a set of methods to control pest organisms by using natural ecological interactions, including predation, parasitism, and competition. part of integrated pest management
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biological evolution
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the change in inherited characteristics of a population from generation to generation, which can result in new species
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biological production
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the capture of usable energy from the environment to produce organic compounds in which that energy is strored
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biomass
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the amount of living material, or the amount of organic material contained in living organisms both as live and dead material, as in the leaves and stem wood of trees
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biomass fuel
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a new name for the oldest fuel used by humans. organic matter, such as plant and animal waste, that can be use d as a fuel
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bioremediation
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a method of treating groundwater pollution problems that utilizes microorganisms in the ground to consume or break down pollutants
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biota
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all the organisms of all species living in an area or region up to and including the biosphere
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biotic province
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a geographical region inhabited by life forms of common ancestry bounded by barriers that prevent the spread of the distinctive kinds of life to other regions and the immigration of foreign species
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birth rate
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the rate at which births occur in a population, measured either as the number of individuals born per unit of time or as the percentage of births per unit of time compared with the total population
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black lung disease
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often called coal miner disease because it is caused by years of inhaling coal dust, resulting in damage to lungs
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body burden
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the amount of concentration of a toxic chemical, especially radionuclides, in an individual
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brines
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with respect to mineral resources, refers to waters with a high salinity that contain useful materials such as bromine, iodine, calcium chloride, and magnesium
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buffers
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materials (chemicals) that have the ability to neutralize acids.these materials may lessen potential of acid rain
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capillary action
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the rise of water along narrow passages, facilitated and caused by surface tension
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carbon cycle
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biogeochemical cycle of carbon. carbon combines with and is chemically and biologically linked with the cycles of oxygen and hydrogen that form the major compounds of life
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carbon monoxide
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(CO) colorless, odorless gas that at a very low concentrations is extremely toxic to humans and animals
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carbon-silicate cycle
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a complex biogeochemical cycle over time scales as long as one-half billion years. included in this cycle are major geologic processes, such as weathering, transport by ground and surface waters, erosion, and deposition of crustal rocks. is believed to provide important negative feedback mechanisms that control the temperature of the atmosphere
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carcinogen
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any material that is known to produce cancer in humans or other animals
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carnivores
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organisms that fed on other live organisms; usually applied to animals that eat other animals
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carrying capacity
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the maximum abundance of a population or species that can be maintained by a habitat or ecosystem without degrading the ability of that habitat or ecosystem to maintain that abundance in the future
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cash crops
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crops grown to be traded in a market
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catastrophe
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a situation or event that causes significant damage to people and property, such that recovery and/or rehabilitation is a long and involved process. ex: hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, large wildfires, floods, etc
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catch per unit effort
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the number of animals caught per unit of effort, such as the number of fish caught by a fishing ship per day. used to estimate the population abundance of a species
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channelization
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an engineering technique that consists of straightening, deepening, widening, clearing, or lining existing stream channels. the purpose is to control floods, improve drainage, control erosion, or improve navigation. is a very controversial practice that may have significant environmental impacts
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chaparral
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a dense scrubland found in areas with Mediterranean climate (a long, warm, dry season and a cooler rainy season
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chemical reaction
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the process in which compounds and elements undergo a chemical change to become a new substance or substances
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chemoautotrophs
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autotrophic bacteria that can derive energy from chemical reactions of simple inorganic compounds
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chemosynthesis
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synthesis of organic compounds by energy derived from chemical reactions
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chimney effect
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process by which warmer air rises in buildings to upper levels and is replaced in the lower portion of the building by outdoor air drawn through a variety of openings, such as windows, doors, cracks in the foundation and walls
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chlorofluorocarbons
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(CFC's) highly stable compounds that have been or are being used in spray cans as aerosol propellants and in refrigeration units. emissions of been associated with potential global warming and stratoshpheric ozone depletion
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chronic disease
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a disease that is persistent in a population, typically occurring in a relatively small but constant percentage of the population
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chronic hunger
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a condition in which there is enough food available per person to stay alive, but not enough to lead to a satisfactory and productive life
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chronic patchiness
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a situation where ecological succession does not occur. one species may replace another, or an individual of the first species may replace it, and no overall general temporal pattern is established. characteristic of harsh environments such as deserts
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clay
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may refer to a mineral family or to a very fine-grained sediment. it is associated with many environmental problems such as shrinking and swelling of soils and sediment pollution
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clean air act amendments of 1990
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comprehensive regulations that address acid rain, toxic emissions, ozone depletion, and automobile exhaust
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climatic change
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change in mean annual temperature and other aspects over periods of time ranging form decades to hundreds of years to several million years.
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closed canopy forest
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forests in which the leaves of adjacent trees overlap or touch, so that the trees form essentially continuous cover
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coal
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solid, brittle, carbonaceous rock that is one of the world's most abundant fossil fuels. it is classified according to energy content as well as carbon and sulfur content
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coal gasification
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process that converts coal that is relatively high in sulfur to a gas in order to remove the sulfur
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cohort
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all the individuals in a population born during the same time period
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common law
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law derived from custom, judgement, or decrees of courts rather than from legislation
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commons
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land that belongs to the public, not to individuals
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ecological community
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a group of populations of different species living in the same local area and interacting with one another. a community is the living portion of an ecosystem
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community effect
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when the interaction between two species leads to changes in the presence or absence of other species or in a large change in abundance of other species then a community effect is said to have occurred
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competition
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the situation that exists when different individuals, populations, or species compete for the same resources and the presence of one has a detrimental effect on the other.
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composting
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biochemical process in which organic materials, such as lawn clippings, are decomposed to a rich, soil- like material
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comprehensive plan
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official plan adopted by local government formally stating general and long-range policies concerning future development
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cone of depression
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a cone-shaped depression in the water table around a well caused by withdrawal by pumping of water at rates greater than the rates at which the water can be replenished by natural groundwater flow
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conservation
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refers to changing our patters of use or simply getting by with less. adjusting our needs to minimize the use of a particular resource such as energy
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consumptive use
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a type of off-stream use. this water is consumed by plants and animals or in industrial processes or evaporates during use. it is not returned to its source.
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contamination
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presence of undesirable material that makes something unfit for a particular use
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continental drift
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the movement of continents in response to seafloor spreading.
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continental shelf
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relatively shallow ocean area between the shoreline and continental slope that extends to approximately a 600-foot water depth surrounding a continent
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controlled experiment
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an experiment designed to test the effects of independent variables on a dependent variable by changing only one independent variable at a time. for each variable tested there are two set-ups (an experiment and a control) that are identical except for the independent variable being tested. any difference in the outcome between the experiment and the control can then be attributed to the effects of the independent variable tested
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convection
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the transfer of heat involving the movement of particles. ex: hot water rises and displaces cold water which sinks to the bottom
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convergent plate boundary
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boundary between two lithosphere plates in which one plate descends below the other (subduction)
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cosmopolitan species
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a species with a broad distribution, occurring wherever in the world the environment is appropriate
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creative justification for the conservation of nature
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an argument for the conservation of nature on the grounds that people often find sources of artistic and scientific creativity in their contacts with the unspoiled natural world
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crude oil
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naturally occurring petroleum, normally pumped from wells in oil fields. refinement produces most of the petroleum products we use today
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cultural eutrophication
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human-induced eutrophication that involves nutrients such as nitrates or phosphates that cause a rapid increase in the rate of plant growth in ponds,lakes, rivers, or the ocean.
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curie
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commonly used unit to measure radioactive decay; the amount of radioactivity from from 1 gram of radium 226 that undergoes 37 billion nuclear transformations per second
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death rate
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the rate at which deaths occur in a population, measured as either the number of individuals dying per unit of time, or as the percentage of a population dying per unit of time
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decomposers
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organisms that feed on dead organic matter
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deductive reasoning
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drawing a conclusion from initial definitions and assumptions by means of logical reasoning
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demand for food
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the amount of food that would be bought at a given price if it were available
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demand-based agriculture
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agriculture with production determined by economic demand and limited by that demand rather than by resources
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demography
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the study of populations, especially their patterns in space and time
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density-dependent population effects
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factors whose effects on a population change with population density
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density-independent population effects
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changes in the size of a population due to factors that are independent of the population size.
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desalination
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the removal of salts from seawater or brackish water so that the water can be used for purposes such as agriculture, industrial processes, or human consumption
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desertification
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the process of creating a desert where there was not one before
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dioxin
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an organic compound composed of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and chlorine. about 75 types are known. is not normally manufactured intentionally but is a by-product resulting from chemical reactions in the production of other materials, such as herbicides. known to be extremely toxic to mammals, its effects on the human body are being intensively studied and evaluated
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disprovability
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the idea that a statement can be said to scientific if someone can clearly state a method or test by which it might be disproved
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divergent plate boundary
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boundary between lithospheric plates characterized by the production of new lithosphere; found along oceanic ridges
