World History Module 4 dba and test – Flashcards

In the 1370s, English theologian and philosopher John Wycliffe began to attack some of the beliefs and practices of the Church. Wycliffe had three main criticisms. First, he objected to the wealth of many clergy members, arguing that the Church, led by the pope, should give up worldly possessions. Next, Wycliffe believed that the Bible, not the pope, was the highest source of religious authority; people should be able to read the Bible for themselves. Lastly, he attacked the Church's teaching of transubstantiation. According to this teaching, the bread and wine used in the Catholic mass were changed into the body and blood of Jesus Christ. Wycliffe's public attacks on the Church aroused bitter opposition. The Church denounced him as a heretic or a person who holds beliefs opposed to official doctrine (known as heresy

John Calvin was another major leader of the Protestant Reformation. Calvin was born and educated in France. Like Luther before him, he believed in the supreme authority of the Bible. In 1533, political pressures forced him to leave France, and he settled in Basel in Switzerland. Three years later, in 1536, he published his most important work, Institutes of the Christian Religion, in which he explained his religious beliefs. The book was read by Protestants throughout Europe. Unlike Luther, Calvin believed in the idea of predestination. According to this teaching, God has chosen only certain individuals for salvation. Also unlike Luther, Calvin believed that there should be no separation between politics and religion, and that Christians should build an ideal state. Calvinism rejected the Church office of bishop. Instead, Calvinist churches were governed by elected groups of elders, called presbyters. During the remainder of the 1500s, Calvin's ideas spread through Europe, notably in Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Scotland. Calvinism strongly influenced some English Protestants, as well. These people, known as Puritans were persecuted in England. In search of religious freedom, they traveled to North America, where they became some of the earliest English transatlantic settlers

Martin Luther began his studies in law but soon shifted to theology. He was ordained a priest in 1507. Like John Wycliffe and Jan Hus, Luther was shocked by the Church's great wealth and its sale of indulgences. He also became convinced that humans gained salvation through faith alone, rather than through faith and good works, such as prayer and acts of charity. The grace of God, not human achievements, was the root of salvation. Luther believed more and more firmly that the time for reform in the Church was long overdue. On October 31, 1517, in the German university town of Wittenberg, Luther made his criticisms public by posting a list of 95 Theses or statements, on a church door. This date is usually considered to be the formal beginning of the Protestant Reformation. Less than four years later, the pope in Rome condemned Luther as a heretic and excommunicated or expelled, him from the Church. As the movement for reform grew stronger, Luther faced many challenges. He managed to avoid arrest and execution, became involved in numerous theological disputes, and battled against poor health. One of his greatest achievements was his translation of the New Testament into German, published in 1534. Luther envisioned human life as full of conflict. His own life certainly exemplified this vision.

Catholics and Protestants competed with each other, sometimes violently, in England. However, under the skillful leadership of Henry's daughter, Queen Elizabeth I, religious rivalries diminished. Although she was a Protestant, she embraced symbols of Catholicism such as the crucifix. Because the Catholic Church did not consider her the legitimate heir to the throne, she embraced the Protestant Church of England. However, to avoid the threat of a Catholic uprising, she needed to find a compromise that would appease both Catholics and Protestants. Elizabeth therefore accepted her role as head of the Church of England, and passed various laws that made membership and attendance mandatory, while keeping many elements of Catholic ritual intact.