US History Midterm Essay Topics – Flashcards

Spanish had not been involved with the new world until they found little gold on Hispaniola. They were aware of the vastness of America and sent Heran Cortes to launch an expedition against the Aztecs 1519. They were after gold, God, and glory. They seized the emperor Moctezuma. When the Spanish wanted to outlaw human sacrifice and demanded gold the Aztecs rebelled. They killed 1/3 of Cortes's men, Moctezuma, which made the Spanish retreat. But when they came back smallpox had infected them and conquered them. They destroyed Tenochitilan and rebuilt it as Mexico City. Capital was New Spain.

Contact among Europeans, Native Americans and Africans. The process included disease, food, technology, and culture. Small pox was the primary ally of the Spanish through their conquering. It also included influenza, measles, and the bubonic plague. Native Americans declined 90%. Natives adopted horses from Europeans. Indians introduced Europeans to corn, tomatoes, potatoes, peppers, tobacco. They also taught them how to build canoes and fish, while Europeans taught the Indians to use firearms and iron tools. Native Americans generally resisted Spanish culture. They kept their language, clothing, agricultural methods, and to an extent their religion. However many Indian Leaders would learn spanish, convert to christianity, and adopt spanish-style clothing. Their sons would be able to attend schools. Many Native Americans would consent to baptism and build churches, but most merged European faith with rituals and beliefs of their religion. However priests were not satisfied unless in was a complete conversion.

Began in 1440s. Africa lost 10 million people to the slave trade. Most slaves in Africa were females that would get married, have children. But in America it began off the west african coast where black slaves purchased for the sugar plantation. It was very profitable and grew quickly. Mortality was high. Portugal had opened both the plantation system and the commercial mechanism for purchasing human beings from African traders.

Martin Luther launched the Protestant reformation in 1517. He believed the catholic church had become corrupt and saw the sale of indulgences which were supposed to reduce the amount of time a person spent in purgatory. Luther believed that Christians received salvation as a gift of God in return for faith rather than for good works. He challenged authority of priests. He led to the division of Western Christianity. Lutheranism spread through Germany and Scandinavia. It inspired other critics of Catholicism including John Calvin. He attempted to create a model society in Geneva, Switzerland. He established churches and became known as the reformed tradition. He went further than Luther in arguing that humans could do nothing to save themselves. His concept was predestination. Through communion with God, the elect learned that they were saved they strove to live blamelessly to reflect their status. Calvinists disciplined individuals for dancing, wearing fancy clothes, and insubordination. Calvin came close to establishing theocracy in Geneva in which the church fathers ruled in the name of God.

Jamestown was the first English colony. The natives watched them as they picked a location. They were algonquian-speaking indians, most were under Powhatan (head of the Pamunkey tribe). They were peaceful with the English colonists. However they refused to give up food when his brother took control. This led to a war which the Powhatan confederacy was defeated and the English took control of the James River.

Pilgrims left England with funding in exchange for fish, furs, and lumber in seven years. 1620 Mayflower departed Plymouth, England. They reached Cape Cod and built their colony on Plymouth. They lacked legal basis for governing themselves so they drafted the Mayflower Compact (a social compact by which they agreed to form a government and obey its laws). Half of the colonists died by disease/cold the first year. In the spring they got help from Indians and planted crops. 1623 the colony was well established and growing as new immigrants arrived. The food supply issue was solved.

James I developed Puritanism. There were two groups: pilgrims (separatists who founded Plymouth) and Puritans (who established Massachusetts Bay colony). Both groups charged that the Anglican church needed to be purified of its rituals, vestments, statues, and hierarchy. The separatists started their own congregations, abandoning hope that the church could be reformed. Their decision to begin a colony in America was the ultimate expression of separatism. The puritans hoped to reform the church of england from within. The purpose of Massachusetts Bay was to develop a moral government that they hoped the people of england would someday make their own.

Puritan founded. It was larger and more organized than Plymouth. Many died the first winter but the colony grew quickly with the influx of 12,000 people during the 1630's. It had government from King Charles I. They believed that they had a covenant with God that would bound them to create a moral community. As Calvinists, they held that individuals were saved from eternal damnation by faith. Restructured the company government to create their version of a godly commonwealth. The colony leaders changed the rules to allow church members to become freemen. Laws and Liberties of Massachusetts was published, a code of biblical law, english common law, and statues tailored of individuals by upholding trial by jury. The government required all citizens to attend Puritan churches. You would be expelled, whipped, fined or even executed if you did not agree. The church was the center of the town. All property owners paid taxes for its support.

Most accepted a subordinate place in their society without complaint. They were a part of a community and family with duties determined by their sex and age. Women raised children, kept the house and garden, preserved fruits and vegetables, tended livestock, spun and wove clothes, cared for the sick, supervised the training of daughters/servants. Conducted trade among themselves. Men were the ones that could vote, serve in government, or become ministers. Their role in the church was keep quiet. They were held equally responsible as men for religious education of their children but emphasized the inheritance of Eve who had led Adam to sin in the garden of Eden. Parents supported children very well; inheritance, apprenticeship, money, college tuition to sons and person property/cash to daughters. Anne Hutchinson was exiled from Massachusetts. She was convinced that Bostonians placed too much emphasis on good works and not on faith. She was a follower of John Cotton. She questioned the rule of colonial leaders, said God spoke directly to her. She went outside the accepted role of women by taking a public stand on religion. He was exiled after trial with her family and supporters. She founded a colony at Portsmouth.

Church membership had declined, especially men. A problem was that the children of non-church members could not be baptized. The clergy that devised an alternative to full church membership (the halfway covenant) which permitted adults who had been baptized but who were not yet saved to be halfway members. People could assume partial status by showing that they understood christian principles and would strive to obey God. Growth of competing religions in New England also proved Puritan failure. The Quakers and Baptists threatened religious unity. Quakers were extreme protestant that believed in corrupt church of England as well as believing puritans practice false doctrine by paying ministers to preach. The Quakers kept returning to Massachusetts and the Puritans arrested and whipped them and threatened death for return. The hangings of several Quaker missionaries was heard world wide. Baptists increased in numbers after approval of halfway covenant.

The Puritans and Native Americans of New England had managed peace. The colonists traded for furs. Some ministers convinced local tribes who were diminished by disease to dwell in Praying Towns (separate from the towns of white settlers the indians were supposed to adopt english customs and learn puritan religion). However peace was destroyed when a huge expansion of white settlers came. The settlers occupied more and more of the hunting, fishing and agricultural lands of the Indians. Trouble began when plymouth government attempted to force Wampanoags to surrender their firearms and obtain permission to sell land. Metacom (king phillip) built a league with neighboring tribes. Metacom attacked 52 english towns, but the colonial government turned the attack around as disease, hunger and weapons shortage weakened the Indians. The Algonquians destroyed 12 towns, killed many colonists and took prisoners. Thousands of Indians died and others enslaved. When the war was over all Native Americans had to live in praying towns where they worked as servants or tenant farmers for whites. Metacom was killed, his head kept on a pole in Plymouth for 20 years.

Uprising in New Mexico. Pueblos drove out the Spanish (kept out for 13 years). Pueblos lived along the Rio Grande. Indian towns rebelled against forced labor and christianity. A huge drought hit, so they did ritual dances to ancient gods (this was outlawed by spanish), after Indians were punished they finally revolted. The leader was Pope, he organized a general insurrection. A full scale attack 1680 killing 400 colonists and 21 priests. When they fell to the rebels they moved south. Pueblos destroyed churches, broke church bells, burned images of chirst and saints. As famine continued the Pueblo alliance fell into disarray. The new spanish governor marched north. Spanish reestablished control over the providence. They killed all Indian men and made slaves of women and children. Another revolt happen 1696. Afterwards the Spanish and Pueblos lived together in relative peace but only because the Hispanic eased requirements for tribute, forced labor, and Christianity.

Governor William Phips arrived in Boston Harbor with the new Massachusetts charter, he found colony in disarray. Witchcraft hysteria had erupted months earlier in Salem village. The colonists believed the God and Satan influenced everyday events. When something bad happened they turned to supernatural explanations. 200 were accused of witchcraft. Several girls experimented with magic, aided by a slave woman. The girls started having fits. Tituba, Sarah Good, and Sarah Osborne was arrested. The governor's wife was even accused. The situation was out of control.

English believed that sub-saharan african people were a lower scale of humanity. Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and even West Indes adopted slavery. They viewed slavery as an economic decision. Planters purchased slaves for workers to grow tobacco. Native Americans died and escaped too easily so black slaves were chosen instead. There were more slaves in southern colonies. Charles II granted to supply captives to English colonies to the Royal African Company. It was opened to any merchant who wanted to participate. The europeans branded then loaded them in ships across the atlantic called the middle passage. Slaves would attempt suicide or die of disease. They rebelled violently attacking captains and crew members. Punishment was brutal. On arrival they would be faced with auction. Naked, examined for disease/defects. Plantation owners paid the highest for healthy young men. Less for women, children, elderly. Africans endured serious illness and high mortality. Colonial assemblies instituted black codes to define slavery and control black population. Slavery lasted a person's lifetime, descended from mother to child, and was the normal status of blacks but never whites. Discrimination was severe (for free and slaves). Enslaved blacks were restricted from traveling without permission, marrying legally, holding property, testifying against whites, congregating in groups. The owner chose your job and decided whether your child would stay or be sold. Most northern slaves were cooks and household servants and men were crafts, domestic service, and shipbuilders. Many would pretend illness, destroy crops/tools, run away, commit violence. As it grew some colonists questioned its morality. They feared rebellion. They believed everyone was equal to God. However these protests had little effect.

A new intellectual movement that spread from Britain to the colonies and bringing important changes. Intellectual, religious, and social ferment as they continued to expand through north america. Wealth rose, elites supported colleges and purchased books and luxury goods. Immigration into the British colonies also promoted regional diversity. Enslaved africans increased to 40% of the southern population. Conflicts with native americans, french, and spanish happened with land. Isaac Newton and John Locke challenged traditional notions that humans had no role in determining their fate, that they could only trust in God to rule the universe. Natural philosophy- astronomy, physics, and chemistry was introduced at colleges. Benjamin Franklin was the symbol of the american enlightenment for his efforts to improve society through science, inventions, and civic organizations.

British providences varied in religious and ethnic make up. The great awakening was from 1720s to 1760s ministers from various denominations called for the renewal of these beliefs in a series of religious revivals. It shattered the existing church structure of the colonies. It wakened the teachings and vigorous preaching style of revivalists, or new light ministers. Religious diversity grew in provinces where established churches, with government support, dominated religious life. Jonathan Edwards preached series of sermons on salvation inclining many to believe they were saved. Revivals split into two groups: new lights and old lights. New light preaches gave impassioned sermons that contrasted dramatically with their opponents the rationalists of old lights. New lights believed salvation was more important than religious training, old lights defended their advanced education in theology. New colleges were founded.

Began in Ohio Valley a land they hoped to sell to settlers. They forced out the French who sent troops to establish ownership, defeat the delewares and shawnees who had built towns along the allengheny and ohio rivers and prevail over Pennsylvania's competing charter claims. The english captured Quebec in 1759 and Montreal in 1760 defeating France in North America. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 which finally ended the war. France lost all territory in North America but received the sugar islands. Spain relinquished Florida to get back Cuba and the philippines and because the British lacked interest in the region in acquired french territory west of the Mississippi. It gave British colonists security from france and spain.

The end of seven years war brought pivotal changes in British North America. Colonists traded with Native Americans, built farms, and developed networks of atlantic commerce. They dealt with crisis. During the last quarter century with greater involvement in imperial affairs and rising importation of consumer goods the provincials felt more a part of the British empire than ever before. They believed they were equal to Great Britain and possessed the rights of English people. Political stability.

British colonies's trouble began when George III appointed George Greenville as minister with responsibility of solving debt crisis of seven years war. He decided americans should pay more taxes because they benefitted from the war and began with the sugar act. It initiated a new policy of charging duties primarily to raise revenue rather than to regulate trade. On the brink of depression American colonists sent requests to england for relief. Merchants feared that if imports on foreign molasses were cut off their provision trade to the spanish and french would be lost. Without foreign credits they could not pay for British manufactures. The Americans cut back on orders and encouraged home industry. The stamp act (1765) provoked an even greater storm of protest. The law departed from the confines of mercantilist policy because its purpose was to pay troops in the colonies. All publications, deeds, liquor licenses, court documents, playing cards, newspapers, and offical transactions were to be subject to this specail stamp and tax. The tax could be paid only in gold or silver. Colonists of all walks found the stamp act offensive. Parliament not their own provincial assemblies passed the act, americans considered it a violation of their rights as British subjects. Protests began along the atlantic seaboard to prevent stamp distribution. The men who led the crowds were "Sons of Liberty" they were mostly propertied men- merchants, shopkeepers, craftsmen who established networks to organize boycotts of British goods. Regulator movement also began targeting the colonial elite were known as Regulators.

British mainland colonies focused on imperial tensions rather than on regional disputes. Radicals emerged from the stamp act crisis with conflicting views: americans celebrated its repeal but the British yielded no authority. Parliament passed three more laws affecting the Americans: an act establishing the american broad of customs commissioners to enforce legislation against illegal trade, the new york restraining act, and the Townshend revenue act. The townshend revenue act placed duties on tea, glass, paper, lead and paint to pay the salaries of governors and judges thus removing their dependence on the provincial legislatures. The act also required colonial courts to provide customs officials with writs of assistance to search houses and businesses for smuggled merchandise. American Whigs thought the townshend act was a step toward tyranny because it raised revenue without the approval of colonial assemblies and removed royal officials from the lawmaker's control. Massachusetts responded to the townshend act first. It petitioned for redress and then dispatched a circular letter or communication to the other 12 colonies suggesting they do the same. Boston residents signed a non important agreement using the same strategy against the townshend act that proved successful against the stamp act. The merchants pledged to stop importing goods from Great Britain unless the townshend duties were repealed. It spread throughout the US. Violence broke out in Boston and the bloodiest conflict occurred- Boston Massacre. Just as the crisis of Boston came to head in Spring the British government decided on partial repeal of the Townshend act. Removing all duties except that on tea. The boycott on tea was in effect so many colonists purchased smuggled dutch tea. When three ships of tea arrived in boston members prevented them from unloading and radicals disguised as mohawks boarded the ships and dumped the tea in the harbor. Parliament passed the Coercive acts which closed the port of boston until residents paid for the destroyed tea, altered the provincial charter to limit the power of town meetings, create a crown appointed council, and expanded the governor's control over the courts. The plan failed to make the providences obedient, instead in pushed americans toward more unified resistance. First continental congress was to obtain repeal of the coercive acts. Americans were now vesting sovereignty in themselves rather than in parliament.

British government decided to seize patriot's stores of food and ammunition at concord. Bostonians discovered the plan and spread the alarm alerting John Handcock in lexington on route to concord. The British reached Lexington where they met 70 militia. A shot went off by colonists and shooting began. 8 lexington men dead, 10 wounded and 1 British soldier wounded. They reached concord. Redcoats killed the occupants and set fire to homes. British loses counted 73 dead and 200 wounded and massachusetts counted 49 killed and 43 wounded. Second continental congress met facing war. Appointed George washington of virginia as commander in chief. Whigs supported the war, tory loyalists rejected it, and Quakers were neutral.

Fighting continued in 1776. Great Britain vs. 13 colonies. Continental congress finally declared independence. Thomas Paine published Common Sense which convinced citizens for independence. Congress appointed Thomas Jefferson to write the Declaration of Independence. It focussed on King's offenses. It also included the rights of people. It was approved by all states besides New York. The revolution was a defensive war. We had alliance with France. Peace was negotiated with the Treaty of Paris. 1783. Established the independence of the US from Great Britain. It set specific land boundaries and called for evacuation of British troops. The new republic had won victory on battle field, and peace on paper. The articles of confederation had limited powers congress faced challenges in demobilizing the army, conducting grade outside the confines of British mercantilism, paying the war debt, coexisting with spanish colonies in Louisiana and Florida dealing with native americans and supervising white settlement in the west. The need for a central government became clear.

The philadelphia convention started 1787. James Madison "Father of Constitution" he wanted a stronger central government. State constitutions with powerful assemblies were too democratic giving too much influence to the common people. The US needed a new constitution that would place authority in the hands of well-educated, propertied men. Another was George Washington. Madison drafted the Virgina Plan which scrapped the articles and proposed a powerful central government dominated by the national legislature of two houses. Not everyone agreed. The great compromise was proposed it established a bicameral congress with representation in the lower house based on population. The compromise between the large and small states created a government that was both national and federal. The constitution needed 3/4 of the states to be amended.

Alexander Hamilton saw the future of US in commerce and manufacturing. He promoted his concept of a strong nation modeled on Great Britain. He became known as Federalists. Favored commercial development, strong central government, high tariffs, loose interpretation of constitution, expansive powers of congress and president. Republican party in contrast favored strict interpretation of constitution, opposed central government, federal privileges for manufacturing and commerce. Thought Hamilton's plans helped the few at the expense of the many. Thomas Jefferson became chief spokesman for the Republican party. Jefferson was a slave owner, declaration of independence. He believed US was limitless land and should foster small farmers. A large population of republicans were not small farmers many were plantation owners or anti-federlist elites. Hamilton's new commercial order was a national bank to be patterned after bank of england. The bank of the US and its branches would hold the federal government's funds and regulate state banks. It was to expand the money supply encouraging commercial growth.

Adams became president and Jefferson became vice president. Americans realized the problem of this procedure for electing the executive because the president represented one party of the vice president the other. The federalists kept control of the presidency though they increased their votes in congress by a small margin. John Adams possessed credentials from service in the revolution and the new republic that made him a worthy heir to washington. He began his administration with the hope that he might bridge the gulf between federalists and republicans. He was involved in XYZ affair. He did the Alien and Sedition acts. Republicans grow in numbers because the mistakes of Adams.