The Digital Abacus 18535 Essay Example

marked significant progress. Over the next decade, Babbage continued working on it until losing interest in 1833 when he conceived an even superior idea – creating the Analytical Engine: a fully program-controlled mechanical digital computer capable of general-purpose functions. The plans involved constructing a decimal computer with identical specifications as well as operating on numbers consisting of 50 decimal digits and having storage capacity for 1,000 such digits.The built-in operations of the Analytical Engine aimed to meet the requirements of a modern general-purpose computer. This included the crucial Conditional Control Transfer Capability, which allowed for non-sequential execution of commands. The machine was designed to utilize punched cards and have multiple reading stations. It was intended to be powered by steam and only require one operator. Unfortunately, none of Babbage's computers were ever completed due to various reasons. The limited use of automatic digital computers during Babbage's time was primarily attributed to the lack of precision machining techniques. Moreover, it is speculated that Babbage was working on a problem that had low demand in the 1840s, leading to a decline in interest in automated computing after his efforts. Nonetheless, between 1850 and 1900, significant advancements occurred in mathematical physics, highlighting the importance of calculation methods for describing dynamic phenomena with differential equations. A pivotal advancement towards automation came with punched cards being developed. In 1890, Herman Hollerith and James Powers successfully employed punched cards in computers for efficient information reading without human involvement.This breakthrough in computing technology resulted in reduced reading errors, increased workflow, and an easily accessible memory system with virtually unlimited storage capacity. Commercial companies such as IBM, Remington, Boroughs, and others were inspired

to develop improved punch-card computers that utilized electromechanical components to convert electrical power into mechanical motion. These computers had various features including automatic card feeding, addition, multiplication, sorting, and punched card output with results. Despite their slower processing speed compared to modern machines (processing around 50 - 220 cards per minute with each card holding about 80 decimal numbers), punched cards were considered a significant advancement at the time as they provided large-scale input/output and memory storage capabilities. Punched card machines played a crucial role in business computing for over 50 years and also made significant contributions to scientific computing. The outbreak of World War II created a high demand for computer capabilities, especially in the military sector where new weapons required trajectory tables and crucial data. In response to this need, John O. Eckert, John W. Mauchly, and their team at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania began constructing a high-speed electronic computer in 1942.ENIAC, also known as the Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator, was a computer with a 10-digit numerical "word" size. It could multiply two numbers at a rate of 300 per second using a stored multiplication table. This machine utilized 18,000 vacuum tubes and consumed around 180,000 watts of electrical power. Compared to previous relay computers, ENIAC was approximately 1,000 times faster. The program's instructions were stored in separate "units" that could be connected together for information flow. However, rewiring and setting function tables and switches after each computation proved to be inconvenient. Despite its limited programmability, ENIAC efficiently handled specific programs it was designed for. From 1946 to 1955, ENIAC was recognized as the first

successful high-speed electronic digital computer (EDC). In 1971, physicist John V. Atanasoff claimed that he had used similar ideas in his simpler vacuum-tube device built in the 1930s at Iowa State College which led to patentability controversy regarding ENIAC's basic digital concepts. Eventually in 1973, the courts ruled in favor of Atanasoff's claim with supporting evidence from another company. Inspired by ENIAC's success, mathematician John Von Neumann conducted a study in 1945 showing how a computer with simple physical structure can perform any computation through programmed control.Von Neumann's insights brought about a revolution in computer organization and construction, particularly with his concept of the stored program technique. This technique encompassed various aspects of computer design and function, allowing for high-speed operation. In order to further enhance efficiency, Von Neumann introduced subroutines to repeat specific parts of a job program and developed conditional control transfer instructions for altering behavior during computation. By enabling the program sequence to be paused and resumed at any point, and by storing instruction programs alongside data in the same memory unit, computing and programming became faster, more flexible, and more efficient. Subroutines could be stored in libraries and only loaded into memory when needed, eliminating the need for reprogramming. This enabled much of a program to be assembled from the subroutine library, with all components of a lengthy computation being worked on and combined within computer memory. The computer's control function essentially acted as an errand runner for the overall process. These techniques quickly became standard practice and were integrated into the first generation of modern programmed electronic computers constructed in 1947. These computers utilized Random Access Memory (RAM), which provided

nearly constant access to information. They featured punched-card or punched-tape input/output devices along with RAM that had a capacity of 1,000 words and access times of .5 Greek MU seconds.Some machines in this group were capable of multiplying in 2 to 4 MU seconds. In terms of physical size, the first generation stored-program computers were much smaller than ENIAC, some even being the size of a grand piano and utilizing only 2,500 electron tubes, which was significantly less than what ENIAC required. Despite requiring regular maintenance and having an operational reliability of around 70 to 80%, these computers remained in use for 8 to 12 years. They primarily operated using ML programming language, although advancements had been made in advanced programming by the mid-1950s. This group included commercially available computers such as EDVAC and UNIVAC. Two noteworthy engineering discoveries during the early 1950s revolutionized the perception of electronic computers: magnetic core memory and the Transistor Circuit Element. These technological advancements were swiftly incorporated into new models of digital computers. By the 1960s, commercially available machines saw RAM capacities increase from 8,000 to 64,000 words with access times ranging from 2 to milliseconds. However, these machines came at a high cost for purchase or rental and their operation became particularly expensive due to expanding programming requirements.The majority of these computers were predominantly located in large computer centers run by industry, government, and private laboratories. These centers had a considerable number of programmers and support staff, which led to the development of methods for operating and sharing the abundant capabilities they offered.

The text discusses two modes of computer processing, namely batch processing and time-sharing. Batch processing involves

the preparation and storage of problems on magnetic drums, disks, or tapes. Once a problem is completed by the computer, it saves both the program and results on the storage unit before moving on to the next problem. On the other hand, time-sharing allows fast and powerful computers to process multiple jobs rapidly, giving an appearance that each job is running independently. Both modes require executive programs for task management.

During the 1960s, advancements in computer technology were demonstrated by machines like LARC and Stretch. The LARC machine had a memory capacity of 98,000 words and operated at nanosecond speeds. In comparison, Stretch offered varying memory access speeds with a total capacity of around 100 million words.

This period also saw computer manufacturers providing various capabilities and prices along with accessories such as consoles, card feeders, printers, and graphing devices. These advancements were widely utilized in businesses for tasks like accounting, payroll management, inventory control systems,and supply ordering processes as well as billing systems.

The CPUs used for these purposes did not require high arithmetic speeds but focused mainly on accessing and managing large amounts of records.Furthermore, a majority of computer systems during this time were sold for simpler purposes, such as in hospitals where they were utilized to track patient records including medications and treatments. They were also used in libraries like MEDLARS and the Chemical Abstracts System to manage computer records on chemical compounds. In the 1960s, there was a shift towards more affordable computer systems with a wider range of applications, moving away from powerful computers designed for specific tasks. Industries such as continuous process manufacturing began adopting smaller computers to regulate and control operations,

including petroleum refining and electrical-power distribution systems. Despite challenges in programming applications for medium-sized on-site computers in the 1960s, advancements in application programming language technologies overcame these obstacles. Applications languages became available for controlling various manufacturing processes, utilizing machine tools with computers, and performing other tasks. Additionally, there was an ongoing revolution in computer hardware involving reducing the size of logic circuitry and components through large-scale integration techniques. In the 1950s, it became apparent that shrinking electronic digital computer circuits and parts could enhance speed, efficiency, and overall performance if a feasible way to achieve it could be found.Around 1960, the emergence of photo printing conductive circuit boards provided a solution to eliminate wiring and allowed resistors and capacitors to be incorporated into the circuitry using the same process. In the 1970s, vacuum deposition of transistors became common, leading to the availability of complete assemblies on tiny chips. This trend continued in the 1980s with very large scale integration, enabling hundreds of thousands of transistors to be placed on a single chip.

During this time period, many companies introduced programmable minicomputers with software packages. The shrinking technology also resulted in the introduction of small and affordable personal computers (PC's) that individuals could purchase and use. Apple Computer and Radio Shack successfully introduced PCs in the 1970s due to their growing popularity in computer games.

In the competitive PC market of the 1980s, there was fierce competition between Apple and IBM. While Intel and Motorola were strong competitors in semiconductor chip manufacturing until then, Japanese firms were making significant advancements in memory chips.

By the late 1980s, some personal computers had microprocessors capable of processing 32 bits of data

at a time, allowing for approximately 4,000,000 instructions per second.During the 1970s and 1980s, Cray Research and Control Data Inc. dominated the supercomputer field. These microprocessors also included read-only memory (ROM) for various process-control functions such as automobile ignition systems and production-line inspections.

In April 1987, IBM launched their latest PC model named PS/2, which brought new standards to the market. Despite other companies already having introduced 3.5-inch floppy disk drives, the PS/2 models did not include internal 5.25-inch drives. Furthermore, the PS/2 introduced the Video Graphics Array (VGA) standard as an improvement over the earlier EGA standard in two significant ways: higher resolution resulting in less distortion and more square pixels, and a greater number of colors that could be displayed simultaneously on-screen.

During this period, IBM and Microsoft collaborated on developing a new operating system called OS/2 with the aim of replacing DOS. However, concerns arose about OS/2 as it was originally designed for the limitations of the 286 processor; these limitations were only resolved with the introduction of Virtual 86 mode in the 386 processor.

Concurrently, Microsoft released Windows 2.0 which brought features like overlapping windows, resizable windows, and keyboard shortcuts.Although multitasking and size limitations posed challenges for applications on this version of Windows, they were addressed with subsequent releases Window/286 and Windows/386In May 1990, Windows 3.0 was introduced as a new standard. It operated on top of DOS and offered compatibility with DOS programs. This led to its widespread adoption by major developers, as it allowed for multitasking between DOS and Windows programs. IBM and Microsoft worked together on creating OS/2, specifically focusing on OS/2 2.0 as the first true 32-bit version. About a

year after the release of Windows 3.0, the two companies eventually went their separate ways.

Following the split, IBM tried to popularize OS/2 further by introducing the consumer-oriented OS/2 Warp 3.0. However, this attempt was unsuccessful in hindering the industry's shift towards Windows, which had become the preferred choice for applications and network usage. During this time period, Intel and Microsoft emerged as leaders in the PC industry, with Windows becoming the standard option for many users.

Alongside these developments, there were notable changes in terminology and hardware descriptors. The term "IBM Compatible" declined while processors became more prominent as a descriptor for hardware.

In 1995, significant advancements occurred such as the rise of internet popularity or "boom." Although networking existed since the 1960s connecting universities and networks together, it truly took shape in 1990 with HTML's invention (hypertext markup language). By 1995, web browsers from Netscape and Microsoft began dominating internet usage.

However, one of the most significant events was Microsoft's highly anticipated release of Windows 95 that same year.This operating system had various features, including support for 32-bit applications and preemptive multitasking. It also introduced new e-mail and communication standards, along with a refreshed interface design. These advancements have had long-term effects on telecommunications, information services, military operations, commerce, government functions, music creation, space travel, and everyday routines. These effects bring numerous benefits such as increased speed in commerce and the ability to make phone calls across oceans even from a car. The military can deploy troops more rapidly and utilize automated missiles without physical deployment. Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) simplify banking processes and make them more accessible. Composing music has become easier through computer programs. Furthermore,

advancements in aerospace technology may eventually lead to space colonization.

However, these advancements also come with potential ethical dilemmas related to the development of refined programming and artificial intelligence (AI). Determining when AI truly becomes intelligent or whether a machine can be considered alive challenges our understanding of personhood. Besides the positive effects mentioned earlier, negative consequences include dependence on computers and the potential failure of worldwide civilization if there is a power outageAs we transition to an information-based civilization, we face challenges ahead. Our national television standard will shift from NTSC to HTSC, a digital format. Tape players are being replaced by CDs and the DVD industry is looming over us. These changes come with a cost, widening the gap between social classes. Society will be transformed not only by the available information but also by economic disparity. The path ahead offers various options, some favorable and others unfavorable. Once a decision is made, there is no turning back. Unfortunately, decisions that seem beneficial now may have negative consequences in the future. Therefore, it is essential to learn from history as past mistakes can have modern implications.

Works Cited:
1) Cortada, James W.Bibliographic Guide to the History of Computing, Computers &the Information Processing Industry.Westport, Conn.Greenwood Press, 1996.
2) Campbell Martin and William Aspray.Computer: A History of the Information Machine.Ontario, Canada.Basic Books 1997.
3) Aspray William.Computing before Computers.Ames,Iowa.Iowa St U., 1990