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Sex

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"... the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women" (World Health Organization)

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Sex

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"... a person's biological status," which is "typically categorized as male, female, or intersex" on the basis of "sex chromosomes, gonads, internal reproductive organs, and external genitalia" (American Psychological Association)

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Gender

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"... the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women" (World Health Organization)

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Gender

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"... the complex interrelationship between *one's biological traits+ and one's internal sense of self as male, female, both or neither as well as one's outward presentations and behaviors related to that perception" (GenderSpectrum.org)

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Sexual Orientation

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"One's natural preference in sexual partners; predilection for homosexuality, heterosexuality, or bisexuality" (Dictionary.com)

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Sexual Orientation

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"... an enduring personal quality that inclines people to feel romantic or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or... both sexes or more than one gender" (Wikipedia)

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Sex refers to biological traits, and is generally

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not considered to be learned/culturally conditioned

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Gender refers to sociocultural norms associated with those biological traits, and is considered to be

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learned/culturally conditioned

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Sexual orientation refers to sexual and/or romantic attraction, and is not considered to be

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learned/culturally conditioned

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All three of these domains are relatively

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independent of one another E.g. biological sex does not determine gender or sexual orientation, gender does not determine biological sex or sexual orientation, and sexual orientation does not determine biological sex or gender

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All three of these domains are characterized by a broad spectrum of possibilities,not

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a few discrete categories. The dominant tendency is to classify people in binary terms (e.g. female vs. male, man vs. woman, homosexual vs. heterosexual, etc.), but the biological and cultural reality is much more complex

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Humans are one of many species that exhibit

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sexual dimorphism i.e., there are identifiable differences between males and females in terms of size, body shape/structure, color, behavior, etc.

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At the same time, not all humans are born with exclusively 'male' or 'female' biological characteristics

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Some may have ambiguous external genitalia, incompletely developed internal reproductive organs, different sex chromosomes (i.e., neither XX or XY), etc.

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These individuals are labeled

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intersex, and scientists estimate that up to 1-2% of humans are born intersex. Though doctors often perform 'corrective' procedures to align infants' bodies with conventional sex categories (i.e., male or female)

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We can examine gender at both an

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individual and a social level

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At the individual level, anthropologists are concerned primarily with

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gender identity

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Gender identity:

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"one's innermost concept of self as male or female or both or neither— how individuals perceive themselves and what they call themselves" (GenderSpectrum.org)

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Gender identity, like sex, exists

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on a spectrum

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'Man' and 'woman' (however they are defined in a given culture) are typically at opposing ends, but individuals can also identify to at least some extent

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as both men and women, or as neither

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Gender identity does not necessarily correspond with assigned

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birth sex, nor with sexual orientation

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Transgender:

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refers to an individual whose gender identity does not match the sex he or she was assigned at birth

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Cisgender:

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refers to an individual whose gender identity does match the sex he or she was assigned at birth

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At the social level, anthropologists are concerned primarily with

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gender roles

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Gender roles:

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"a set of behaviors that indicates one's gender, [specifically] the image projected by a person that identifies their femaleness or maleness; an overt public presentation of gender identity" (Dictionary.com; my emphasis)

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In other words, gender is less a function of what you 'are' in an essential/innate sense, and more a function of

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what you do in a sociocultural sense

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For this reason, anthropologists often analyze gender as

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a kind of 'expression,' or everyday social performance

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In Western society, the dominant tendency is to

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recognize only two genders (man and woman), to assume that gender identity is/should be a 'natural' extension of biological sex, and to classify individuals who do not fit into this binary system as 'unnatural' or 'abnormal'

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But gender roles are:

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Cultural rather than biological, Learned rather than innate, and Highly variable from place to place and time period to time period

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Gender roles are also typically

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hierarchical rather than equal

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In many/most contemporary human societies, conventional gender roles legitimate male dominance over females this is known as

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patriarchy

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Patriarchal societies are those which are:

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Male-dominated (men hold most prominent positions of leadership/authority/power) and Male-controlled (men are expected to exert control, while women are assumed to need male supervision and protection) Male-identified (social and personal attributes associated with men are more highly valued than those associated with women) Male-centered (men are the center of attention in the public domain, are considered the unmarked 'norm,' etc.)

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In some senses, gender operates in a similar way to race

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both involve assigning arbitrary cultural meanings and values to different social groups on the basis of (perceived) biological differences, then establishing hierarchical relationships between those groups

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But also key differences

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gender relations play out primarily in the domestic sphere, while race relations typically play out primarily in the public sphere

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Sexual Orientation: Conventional categories are

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heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, and asexual

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But researchers have argued that sexual orientation exists

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along a spectrum. Individuals differ in their degree of attraction to men vs. women, and this can change over time

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Again, the dominant belief in Western society is that both gender identity and

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sexual orientation are 'natural' extensions of biological sex for example individuals with male traits should act like 'men' and be attracted to women, while individuals with female traits should act like 'women' and be attracted to men

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This is called heteronormativity, and it functions much like patriarchy, in that it

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marginalizes those who do not fit the dominant mold

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But again, biological and cross-cultural research has revealed that sex, gender, and sexual orientation are relatively

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independent of one another

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The root determinants of sexual orientation are not yet fully understood, but many scientists suggest that

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genetics, hormones, and brain chemistry all play important roles

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Early anthropological research (by both men and women) focused primarily on

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the perspectives of men

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Anthropologists projected

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Western gender norm about masculine dominance and authority onto non-Western societies

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They thus generally only asked men to explain their

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cultural beliefs and practices, even when examining aspects of life dominated by women

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This emphasis on male perspectives was challenged as anthropological thought was increasingly influenced by feminism for example

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increasing interest in female perspectives, in what it means to be a 'woman' (or a 'man') in different societies more generally, in how different societies deal with gender/gender roles and sexual orientation, etc.

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Contemporary cross-cultural anthropological research has revealed that:

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Not all societies recognize only two distinct gender roles E.g. 'two spirit' people in Native American societies E.g. calabai, calalai, and bissu in Bugis society (Indonesia)

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Contemporary cross-cultural anthropological research has revealed that: The meanings, values, behaviors, symbols, and power relationships associated with different genders

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vary from society to society

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No convincing evidence has been found of societies where

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women unequivocally dominate men

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But much more

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egalitarian relationships between women and men have been documented in numerous human societies, both past and present

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And there are many societies where women are not subject to the same

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scrutiny or control (in terms of social, economic, political, and sexual behavior)

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Though ideas about gender and sexual orientation vary significantly across cultures, patriarchy and heteronormativity are

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pervasive forces that impact millions (if not billions) of women and men around the world

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Patriarchy affects women's:

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Educational and economic opportunities (schooling, jobs, wages, property ownership, etc.) Such as political leadership and gender pay gap

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Patriarchy affects women's: Vulnerability to (and defense against)

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gender-based violence (e.g. rape, domestic abuse, dowry death, honor killings, female infanticide, etc.)

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It is often extremely difficult for women to seek

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justice after these heinous crimes, for legal and/or sociocultural reasons

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Patriarchy affects women's: Sexual freedom/agency.

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There are major double standards for how female vs. male sexual behavior is evaluated in many contemporary societies (e.g. 'slut shaming' vs. praising the 'player,' tie ins with rape culture, etc.)

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And yet women continue to be hypersexualized and

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objectified in the mass media, etc.

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Patriarchy affects women's:Personal/social freedoms

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to go out without male accompaniment, to drive, etc

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Patriarchy affects women's: Acceptance as

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full, equal members of society more generally (e.g. men are typically the unmarked 'norm' in the public sphere, while women's presence is highly visible and scrutinized) E.g. language ("mankind," "he"/"him," etc.) E.g. "for her" commodities

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Heteronormativity affects non-heterosexual and transgendered people's:

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Access to basic legal rights and freedoms that others take for granted such as marriage

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Heteronormativity affects non-heterosexual and transgendered people's:Vulnerability to

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(and defense against) homophobic/transphobic violence (from grade school bullying to murder)

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Heteronormativity affects non-heterosexual and transgendered people's: Acceptance as full,

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equal members of society more generally. For example homophobic/transphobic messages in contemporary mass media, social media, religious discourse, etc. and countless news stories from all over the country and the world

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