question

Exothermic changes in state- energy and heat is lost

answer

Freezing- liquid to solid
Condensation- gas to liquid
Deposition- gas to solid

question

Endothermic changes in state- needs heat to occur

answer

Melting- solid to liquid
Evaporation- liquid to gas
Sublimination-Solid to gas

question

Pure liquids vs. Non pure liquids

answer

Pure liquids evaporate faster than non puer liquids.

question

Rate of evaporation

answer

depends on the forces holding the molecules together in a liquid state

question

Increase temperature favors...

answer

escape because molecules move faster

question

Vapor pressure

answer

Pressure exerted by a vapor above a liquid. Lower the vapor pressure, you increase the boiling point and vice versa.

question

Molecules with high vapor pressure

answer

Are volatile and evaporate easily. The higher the vapor pressure the easier it is for the liquid to evaporate. I.e- alcohol

question

Vapor pressures increase as temperature....

answer

increase

question

Boiling

answer

Is a special form of evaporation. Occurs when heat is added to a liquid. Evaporation doesn't just occur, so do bubbles.

question

Changing boiling point.

answer

The boiling point of a liquid is lowered as external pressure decreases; the opposite is also true.
Vacuum distillation allows one to boil water well below 100 degrees

question

Boiling at elevations

answer

Pressure cookers increase pressure , and increase the boiling point. (More than 100 degrees C) Cooks at higher temperature.
The higher elevation, the lower the air pressure lower the boiling point. (Mount Everest)
The lower the elevation, the higher the air pressure and the higher the boiling point. (Death Valley)

question

Intermolecular forces

answer

forces/interactions that exist between molecules

question

Dipole-Dipole

answer

these are electrostatic attraction between polar molecules.Polar molecules have a partial negative end and a partial positive end.

question

Hydrogen Bonds

answer

Is dipole-dipole interactions, but because Hydrogen is involved makes it an extra strong interaction. This is because H is small.
It is an attraction between a positively charged H atom, and a negatively charged O, F, or N atom in another molecule.
Hydrogen bonds are so strong, so that they decrease the vapor pressure, and increase boiling point of the liquid.
Takes a long time to boil hydrogen bonds because they have higher melting/boiling points than liquids with no hydrogen bonds.
I.E water!! Polar molecules
**Is extremely important in number of interaction between biochemical molecules such as proteins, enzymes and DNA.

question

London forces

answer

Weakest of all forces
Momentary attractions due to the movement of the electron cloud between non polar molecules
I.e Cl2
These forces increase with molecular mass
Ex. Br gas is larger than Cl gas which is larger than F gas.

question

London forces cont.

answer

The electrons are further away from the nucleus therefore they are polarized easier.
Larger molecules have more SA to attract to each other.
Theses are very weak interactions, but if there are many of them it can be very significant.

question

Solutions

answer

Is a homogenous mixture of a solute in a solvent.
Solute is always in lesser amount
Solvent is always in greater amount.
There are 9 types based on the number of diff. phases.

question

Types of solutions

answer

Gas in a gas- air. Nitrogen would be the solvent, and CO solute.
Gas in a liquid- soda. Sugar liquid is the solvent, and CO2 is the solute.
Liquid in a liquid- vinegar or rubbing alcohol. Both are mixed with water.
Solids in liquids- salt in water. Sugar in water.
Liquid in a solid- is a gel. Texture changes.
Solid in a solid- alloys, brass, or bronze (copper and silver).
****they all look as if they’re one!!!

question

Solubility

answer

The maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent under a given set of conditions.
Expressed as grams per solute/ 100 g solvent.

question

Temp. effects for a liquid in a liquid

answer

If you add heat, it usually increases solubility

question

Temp effects for a gas in a liquid

answer

if you add heat, it decreases solubility.

question

Pressure effects for either a solid or liquid in a liquid

answer

increased pressure causes little or no change in solubility.

question

Pressure effects on a gas in a liquid

answer

Increasing pressure increases solubility

question

Henry's Law

answer

For a gas in a liquid, increased pressure causes increased solubility.
“The Bends”- when diving deep into water, there is increased pressure and this causes the dissolution of Nitrogen in blood.
When surfacing quickly, the nitrogen escapes from the blood and causes serious health affects.

question

Concentrations of solutions

answer

Dilute solution- small amount of solute in solvent.
Concentrated solution- large amount of solute in solvent.
Saturated solution- maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a solvent at a given condition.
Supersaturated- Contains more solute than theoretically can be dissolved in the solvent. You can see particles.
Unsaturated-Contains less solute than can be theoretically dissolved in a solution.

question

Aqueous vs. non aqueous solutions

answer

Aqueous solution- solute in water.
Non-aqueous solution- Substance other than water is the solvent

question

Solution formation

answer

In a solution, solute particles are evenly dispersed.
In order to form a solution, you have to overcome and break apart forces that are holding the existing molecules together.
Then you need to reform them, new attractions must be made between solute particles and solvent particles

question

Ionic compounds

answer

Metals bonding to non metals. They are interacting in such a way so that when they become ionized they form a charge, the metal loses electrons, and the non metals gain electrons. They usually form large crystal molecules.
Salt to water. Water molecules are polar, and because they’re polar, they will pull apart the Na from the Cl. Rip apart lattice. (ionization)
Forms Na ions and Cl ions.
Then the water molecules surround the ions and form a layer of hydration.
If you can’t break apart the lattice it will not be soluble in water. Most ionic compounds are soluble in water, because water is strong.
Sometimes you can add heat to increase the solubility and help with the break down.
Can be exothermic or endothermic.

question

Covalent bonds

answer

Contain covalent bonds. 2 non metals. Sharing of electrons. There are no ions formed, no ionization taking place, do not exist in a crystal lattice. They are in molecular geometry.
Consider glucose- water collides with glucose molecules and hydrogen bonding occurs. If hydrogen bonding does not occur, it is NOT SOLUBLE in water. Layer of hydration forms.
Hydrogen bonds= water bonding to O, N, or Fl.
Consider glucose- Glucose has O’s and H’s.
If the C:O ratio is 3:1 or less, it is soluble in water.
Some things can react with water to become soluble. Acids do this.

question

Percent Concentrations for weight

answer

FOR WEIGHT Parts per hundred
Mass of solute over mass of solution x 100.
The percentage means g of solute per 100g of solution.
Solid in a liquid. (m/v) or (g/ml). Grams plus grams does equal 100.

question

Percent concentrations for volume

answer

VOLUME IS DIFF! %v/v- i.e 3% alcohol means 3% per 100 mls of water.
Pipette 3 ml of alcohol and then add water up to 100mls. Does not mean 97 ml of water plus 3 ml of alcohol.
“Take 3 ml of alcohol and qs it to 100 ml”
Volume plus volume does not equal 100.

question

Fluid Movement

answer

5% glucose or 5% KCl. The solutions appear to be equal concentrations.
Will water move across this membrane?
The question cannot be answered using these concentration units.
What concentration units do you use? Molarity
Water will move to the substance with the greater osmolarity

question

Molarity

answer

In the body. (M)
Number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
Units are moles per liter or millimoles per milliliters.
1M of NaCl means 1 mole of NaCl per Liter of Soln.
Remember that 1 mole is equal to molecular weight.
To make this solution put 58 grams of NaCl and bring it up to 1 Liter. To half this, use half molar mass and half a liter. 58 x .5. If you want a third? 58 x .3
Grams solute= form. mass x molarity x volume
MASS MUST BE IN GRAMS, VOLUME MUST BE IN LITERS!! You can use ml, but you have to use mg then.

question

Dilutions

answer

Dilutions only involve adding solvent (water) to a solution.
Therefore the number of moles in the solution stays the same.
Since molarity= moles per liter…. Moles= liter x molarity
C1 v1 = c2v2
# of millimoles= moles x milliliters

question

Colloids

answer

Not a true solution, particles are dispersed equally but not dissolved. (sand in water)
Cannot visually see the particles.
Colloidal particles scatter light (tyndall effect)
Particles can pass through filter paper
They do not settle out
Are 10 -7 to 10 – 5 cm … very small. Particles any larger than this will settle out

question

Colloidal dispersion

answer

Are stabilized by:
Particle motions and collisions (Brownian movement)
Solvation layer around dispersed phase. (Similar to hydration layer)
Like charges on surface of particles (solvent and colloid)

question

How to make colloids unstable

answer

To make them unstable, you can change the solvation layer (colloid will come out of the soln) or cancelling the surface charge.
Plasma proteins, and fat transport in blood, example of colloids. If you were to add fat you’d change the solvation layer.
Alcohol to blood would denature a protein, and it would precipitate out.

question

Collegative properties of solutions

answer

Physical property of a solution, that depends only on the number of solute particles present in a given quantity of solvent and not on their chemical identities. I.e: water, you add some salt and water will change its physical properties.
The solute thus:
Decreases melting (freezing) point
Raises boiling point
Causes less evaporation of solvent

Examples: salt on wet roads in winter, salt in boiling water, antifreeze.

question

One mole of ionized vs One mole of ionized in a solution

answer

One mole of un-ionized solute per liter of solution lowers the freezing point by 1.86 deg. C and increases the boiling point by .51 deg. C.
One mole of ionized solute per liter of solution:
Number of ions produced is important, each acts as a particle.
1 mole KCl ionizes into K and Cl (2 particles)
Multiply by number if ions.

question

Osmosis

answer

Passing of water through a semi permeable membrane.
Water moves from dilute solution to more concentrated solution. (less to more)
This will stop when both sides are at equal concentration (EQ)

question

Osmotic Pressure

answer

Prevents the flow of water. Prevents osmosis.
Applied to concentrated side.
Only the number of solute particles (concentration) matter for osmosis to occur.
Particles that contribute to osmosis are:
Ions (salt)
Small molecules (glucose)
Colloids (proteins)
Most biological membranes are not purely semipermeable (osmotic) They allow the passage of other small molecules.

question

Osmolarity

answer

Important in predicting movement (osmosis) in physiological systems.
Osmolarity is directly proportional to its osmotic pressure.
Osmolarity= M x # of particles liberated. (for ionic compounds)
Osmolarity = M (for molecular compounds)

question

Isotonic fluid

answer

Isotonic solution has the same osmotic pressure as intracellular fluid.

question

Hypotonic solution

answer

Hypotonic solution has less osmotic pressure than intracellular fluid.
causes cell lysis, due to water movement in the cell.

question

Hypertonic solution

answer

has a greater osmotic pressure than intracellular fluid. Causes water to leave the cell and the cell to shrink

question

Mg Sulfate

answer

Increases the osmolarity of the small intestines.used in some laxative medications. This is an osmotic cathartic and draws water into the intestines.

question

Epsom salts

answer

Used as a foot bath to reduce swelling
It draws water out of the foot

question

Dialysis

answer

Passage of small molecules and ions (solutes) across a biological membrane.
The direction of concentration is from high to low.
Hemodialysis is used to remove waste solutes from the blood in kidney disease.
The impure blood is passed across a membrane in an isotonic solution to prevent the loss of electrolytes.
Then it is disposed of

question

Normal blood vessel

answer

Allows water, Na, Cl, glucose etc. to pass to/from interstitial fluid (space between cells).
Proteins and RBCS (cells) are large enough to be colloids and cannot pass across (stay in blood), hence little protein/no blood in interstitial fluid.
If something happened, leaking could occur. High bp can cause this to occur. This increase bp or increased capillary permeability can allow these larger entities to pass across the membrane. (Think about a clogged drain)

question

Distribution of body water

answer

60-70% water
50% is intracellular fluid (solid masses, cells dealing with tissues)
5% is in blood (plasma-> fluid portion of blood)
15% is interstitial fluid
Excess water equals edema.
Decreased water equals dehydration.

question

Normal solute levels- major contributors to Osmolarity of plasma.

answer

Na- 140 mm/l – most important
k- 4 mm/l
Cl- 100 mm/l
HCO3- 25 mm/l
Albumin- 5 g/dl
Glucose- 90 mg/dl
Urea- 7-18 mg/dl

question

Osmolarity of serum

answer

Total osmolarity of serum is 280-300 milliosmoles.
Is regulated through osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.
Control of osmolarity depends on ADH
ADH promotes reabsorption of water in the kidney’s renal tubules.

question

Urine Osmolarity

answer

Has a higher osmolarity than blood. Fluctuates greatly during the day.
Measured over 24 hours in a huge bucket. Usually greater than 600 milliosmoles per liter.
Urine to serum ration should be greater than 1.5 normally.
If it is less than 1, it means diabetes insipidus which causes large losses of water. Lack of ADH.
If it equals one, there is no concentrating ability of the kidneys. It means the kidneys are failing. Blood and water are the same.

question

Monitering kidney function

answer

BUN- blood urea nitrogen. Concentration of urea in blood.
Urea is the way nitrogen is excreted. Nitrogen is toxic in the human body.
Liver removes nitrogen, converts it to urea. Urea is easily cleared by kidneys (low renal threshold).
Urea is not easily cleared by the kidneys when it has high renal threshold. They are not easily removed at high concentrations. (Glucose, Proteins-amino acids- high renal threshold). Goes in the urine when it is high in the blood and that is a problem.

question

Fluid balance

answer

Intracellular fluid to Extracellular fluid (blood) to interstitial.
Water flows this way. Water could not go from intracellular to interstitial though.
They should all be at equal osmolarity (EQ) but with different solute composition.
If the fluids mix out of order, there is usually an injury.

question

Solutes in ECF (plasma)

answer

Cations- major in order
Na
K
Ca
Mg
Anions-
HCO3
Cl
Proteins -(adopt anion charge, called proteinate)
Non-ionized organics- glucose, metabolic acids, urea, etc.)

question

Solutes in interstitial fluid (blood)

answer

Same as ECF MINUS PROTEINS.
Proteins are too big to pass into the interstitial fluid

question

Solutes in ICF- inside the cell

answer

Inside the cell
Potassium is found in the highest concentration. Also there is Mg, and Na. (cations)
Anions- HPO4 2 -, and H2PO4 –
Calcium, protein, nonionized organics and glucose are also found in cell.

question

Fluid movement- ICF to ECF

answer

Water leaves the cell, it shrinks. Leads to dehydration.
Water moves from low osmolarity to high osmolarity. From dilute to more concentrated.
Blood got more concentrated, so the water moved.
Why did the blood get more concentrated?
ADH decrease, water loss.
Increased ECF osmolarity (diabetes, ketosis, hypernatremia). Produce more urine to get rid of the ketones.
Cells become dehydrated.

question

Fluid movement- ECF to ICF

answer

Reverse is exactly the reverse.
Water into the cells, swelling/edema. Intracellular edema.
Decreased ECF osmolarity. All due to a solute decrease in the plasma. (hypoglycemia, and prolonged diuretic use.)
Lower blood volume, affects brain- dizzyness, double vision, shaking, etc.

question

Fluid movement- ECF to interstitial

answer

In capillaries, because blood pressure is so high, it causes fluid to leak. At arterial end, blood pressure is greater than blood osmotic pressure.
At venous end, blood pressure is less than blood osmotic pressure.
Net result: At arterial end, water leaves the blood vessel (ECF) and go into interstitial. At venous end, water flows back in and maintains balance.

question

Causes for extracellular edema

answer

In capillaries, because blood pressure is so high, it causes fluid to leak. At arterial end, blood pressure is greater than blood osmotic pressure.
At venous end, blood pressure is less than blood osmotic pressure.
Net result: At arterial end, water leaves the blood vessel (ECF) and go into interstitial. At venous end, water flows back in and maintains balance.

question

Kidneys

answer

Decrease Bp, decrease CO, decrease of blood flow through kidneys. The kidneys don’t function properly.
Kidneys secrete renin, renin acts on Angiotensinogen to form Angiotensin I.
I is converted to II by ACE due to the lungs.
Angiotensin is a powerful vasoconstrictor which raises bp.
Increase flow of blood through kidneys. Causes adrenal cortex to produce aldosterone, a steroid which causes kidneys to reabsorb Na.
When Na increases in the blood, it increases osmolarity, causing water to go into the blood which increases blood volume/pressure.

question

ACE inhibitor

answer

decrease production of angiotensin II to decrease BP. (people with high BP would take this)

question

Consequence of increased fluid return

answer

The increased fluid return to an unhealthy heart causes extracellular edema.
If it’s not removed it can cause respiratory distress.

question

Arrhenius theory

answer

Acids: hydrogen containing covalent compound, when in water produces an H+ ion. (Ionization) (forms a proton when added to water)
Base: A hydroxide containing ionic compound, that in water OH- is produced.(dissociation)

question

Bronsted Lowry Theory

answer

Acids: substance that donates a proton (H+) to some other substance.
Base: substance that accepts a proton (H+) from another substance.
Can’t have an acid without a base.
In water H+ cannot exist in a free state, thus it reacts with water to produce hydronium ions.
pH meters measure pH3 O +, not H+
HCO3, two bonds are covalent, and one is coordinate covalent.

question

Conjugates

answer

Conjugate base- the substance that has lost the proton.
Conjugate acid- the substance that gained the proton.

question

Amphoteric substances

answer

Can gain or accept a proton depending on what they’re reacting to. They function as both an acid or a base, not at the same time though. Best example is water, amino acids, and bicarbonate.

question

Di and Triprotic acids

answer

How many protons can it donate?
Mono- donates 1 proton
Di- donates 2 protons, undergoes 2 reactions
Tri- donates 3 protons

question

Strengths of Acids and Bases

answer

Depends on the degree of ionization in water.
Strong acids ionize 100%, weak acids ionize 5%.
Strength has nothing to do with concentration.
It also depends on position of the EQ with water.
- Strong acids favor products
- Weak acids favor reactants

question

Strengths cont.

answer

Strong acids, have weak conjugate bases.
Weak acids, have strong conjugate bases.
Any acid that contains carbon is a weak acid. They are organic acids.
Group 1 A bases are very strong, as well as group 2A bases. All other bases are classified as weak. 1 or 2 OH’s are strong. Any more than that is weak.

question

How is dialysis and osmosis different?

answer

Osmosis only allows solvent molecules to pass through the membrane, whereas dialysis only allows solute particles to pass through the membrane.

Test Number 4 – Flashcards

Unlock all answers in this set

Haven't found what you were looking for?

Search for samples, answers to your questions and flashcards