Who was the first individual to observe cells? A. Robert Koch B. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek C. Robert Hooke D. Louis Pasteur

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Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek Genus And Species Microbiology

Micro Chapter 1 Test Answers – Flashcards 44 terms

Kate Moore

44 terms

Preview

Micro Chapter 1 Test Answers – Flashcards

question

When humans manipulate the genes of microorganisms the process is called A. Bioremediation B. Genetic engineering C. Epidemiology D. Immunology E. Taxonomy

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B. Genetic engineering

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Which of the following is not considered a microorganism? A. Mosquito B. Protozoa C. Bacteria D. Viruses

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A. Mosquito

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All microorganisms are best defined as organisms that A. Cause human disease B. Lack a cell nucleus C. Are infectious particles D. Are too small to be seen with the unaided eye E. Can only be found growing in laboratories

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D. Are too small to be seen with the unaided eye

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Which activity is an example of biotechnology? A. Bacteria in the soil secreting an antibiotic to kill competitors B. A microbiologist using the microscope to study bacteria C. Egyptians using moldy bread on wounds D. Eschericia coli producing human insulin E. Public health officials monitoring diseases in a community

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D. Eschericia coli producing human insulin

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Living things ordinarily too small to be seen with the unaided eye are termed A. Bacteria B. Viruses C. Parasites D. Microorganisms E. None of the choices is correct

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D. Micoorganisms

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The study of the immune response to infection caused by microorganisms is A. Hypersensitivity B. Epidemiology C. Immunology D. Morbidity E. Geomicrobiology

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C. Immunology

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Which of the following does not indicate microbe involvement in energy and nutrient flow? A. Formation of oxygen by an oxygenic photosynthesis B. Formation of greenhouse gases C. Formation of soil D. Digestion of complex carbohydrates in animal diets E. Decomposition of dead matter and wastes

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A. Formation of oxygen by an oxygenic photosynthesis

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The microorganisms that recycle nutrients by breaking down dead matter and wastes are called A. Decomposers B. Prokaryotes C. Pathogens D. Eukaryotes E. Fermenters

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A. Decomposers

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The microorganisms that do not have a nucleus in their cells are called A. Decomposers B. Prokaryotes C. Pathogens D. Eukaryotes E. Fermenters

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Prokaryotes

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The first prokaryotes appeared about ___ billion years ago. A. 5 B. 4 C. 3 D. 2 E. 1

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B. 4

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Which of the following is not a human use of microorganisms? A. Baking bread B. Treating water and sewage C. Breaking down chocolate D. Mass producing antibiotics E. Cleaning up oil spills

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C. Breaking down chocolate

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Using microbes to detoxify a site contaminated with heavy metals is an example of A. Biotechnology B. Bioremediation C. Decomposition D. Immunology E. Epidemiology

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B. Bioremediation

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Disease-causing microorganisms are called A. Decomposers B. Prokaryotes C. Pathogens D. Eukaryotes E. Fermenters

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C. Pathogens

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The number one worldwide infectious diseases are A. AIDS related diseases B. Diarrhea diseases C. Malaria diseases D. Measles E. Respiratory diseases

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E. Respiratory diseases

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Which of the following is a unique characteristic of viruses that distinguishes them from the other major groups of microorganisms? A. Cause human disease B. Lack a nucleus C. Cannot be seen without a microscope D. Contain genetic material E. Lack cell structure

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E. Lack cell sturcture

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Helminths are A. Bacteria B. Protozoa C. Molds D. Parasitic worms E. Infectious particles

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D. Parasitic worms

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Organisms called parasites are A. Always classified in the kingdom Monera B. Always harmful to their host C. The decomposers in ecosystems D. Always a virus E. Free-living

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B. Always harmful to their host

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Which group of microorganisms is composed only of hereditary material wrapped in a protein covering? A. Viruses B. Bacteria C. Parasites D. Fungi E. Yeasts

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A. Viruses

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The Dutch merchant who made and used quality magnifying lenses to see and record microorganisms was A. Francesco Redi B. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek C. Louis Pasteur D. Joseph Lister E. Robert Koch

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B. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

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Which of the following is not a process in the scientific method? A. Belief in a preconceived idea B. Formulate a hypothesis C. Systematic observation D. Laboratory experimentation E. Development of a theory

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A. Belief in a preconceived idea

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Experimentation A. Is designed to refute an hypothesis B. Is designed to support an hypothesis C. Provides a means to gather subjective data D. Provides a means to gather objective data E. Is the first step in the scientific method

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D. Provides a means to gather objective data

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A scientist that constructs a hypothesis and then tests its validity by outlining predicted events of the hypothesis followed by experiments to test for those events is using the _____ approach. A. Koch B. Scientific method C. Spontaneous generation D. Taxonomic E. None of the choices is correct

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B. Scientific method

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The scientific method includes all of the following except A. Hypothesis B. Experimentation C. Observation D. Control group E. Theory

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E. Theory

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Koch's postulates are criteria used to establish that A. Microbes are found on dust particles B. A specific microbe is the cause of a specific disease C. Life forms can only arise from preexisting life forms D. A specific microbe should be classified in a specific kingdom E. Microbes can be used to clean up toxic spills

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B. A specific microbe is the cause of a specific disease

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The surgeon who advocated using disinfectants on hands and in the air prior to surgery was A. Joseph Lister B. Ignaz Semmelweis C. Robert Koch D. Louis Pasteur E. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

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A. Joseph Lister

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Sterile refers to A. Pathogen free B. Absence of spores C. Absence of any life forms and viral particles D. Pasteurized E. Homogenized

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C. Absence of any life forms and viral particles

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Which scientist showed that anthrax was caused by the bacterium, Bacillus anthracis? A. Joseph Lister B. Ignaz Semmelweis C. Robert Koch D. Louis Pasteur E. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

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C. Robert Kock

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Taxonomy does not involve A. Nomenclature B. Classification C. Taxa D. Identification E. Common name

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E. Common name

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Which scientific field is involved in the identification, classification and naming of organisms? A. Nomenclature B. Taxonomy C. Phylogeny D. Woesean classification E. None of the choices is correct

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B. Taxonomy

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The orderly arrangement of organisms into a hierarchy of taxa is called A. Classification B. Identification C. Nomenclature D. Experimentation E. Biotechnology

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A. Classification

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Which of the following is a taxon that contains all the other taxa listed? A. Species B. Phylum C. Kingdom D. Genus E. Family

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C. Kingdom

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The smallest and most significant taxon is A. Genus B. Species C. Kingdom D. Family E. Phylum

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B. Species

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Select the correct descending taxonomic hierarchy (left to right). A. Family, order, class B. Family, genus, species C. Genus, species, family D. Class, phylum, order E. Kingdom, domain, phylum

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B. Family, genus, species

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Which of the following is a scientific name? A. Gram positive streptococcus B. Staphlococcus C. Streptococcus pyogenes D. Anthrax E. Streptobacilli

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C. Streptococcus pyogenes

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When assigning a scientific name to an organism, A. The species name is capitalized B. The species name is placed first C. The species name can be abbreviated D. Both genus and species names are capitalized E. Both genus and species names are italicized or underlined

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E. Both genus and species names are italicized or underlined

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The study of evolutionary relationships among organisms is called A. Biotechnology B. Genetics C. Recombinant DNA D. Phylogeny E. Taxonomy

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D. Phylogeny

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Which area of biology states that living things undergo gradual structural and functional changes over long periods of time? A. Morphology B. Phylogeny C. Evolution D. Genetics E. None of the choices is correct

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C. Evolution

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A scientist studying the sequence of nucleotides in the rRNA of a bacterial species is working on A. Determining evolutionary relatedness B. Bioremediation C. Recombinant DNA D. Nomenclature E. Determining if that species is the cause of a new disease

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A. Determining evolutionary relatedness

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The scientist/s that proposed that organisms be assigned to one of 3 domains is/are A. Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur B. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek C. Carl Woese and George Fox D. Robert Whittaker E. Francesco Redi

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C. Carl Woese and George Fox

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In Whittaker's system, the protozoa and algae are classified in the kingdom A. Monera B. Protist C. Fungi D. Plant E. Animal

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B. Protist

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Which kingdom does not contain any eukaryotes? A. Monera B. Protist C. Fungi D. Plant E. Animal

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A. Monera

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Who developed the first rabies vaccine in 1885? A. Pasteur B. Lister C. Leeuwenhoek D. Redi

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A. Pasteur

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Which scientific name is written correctly? A. Staphylococcus aureus B. staphylococcus aureus C. Staphylococcus Aureus D. Staphylococcus aureus

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D. Staphylococcus aureus

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Traditional approaches to taxonomy involved observation of visible morphological characteristics. Today, however, new molecular methods include the examination of: A. DNA B. rRNA C. proteins D. All of these

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D. All of these

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Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek Microbiology Microbiology For Health Sciences

Microbiology Chapter 1: History of Microbiology – Flashcards 70 terms

William Jordan

70 terms

Preview

Microbiology Chapter 1: History of Microbiology – Flashcards

question

Which of the following taxonomic kingdoms were recognized by Linnaeus? A. protozoa, plants, and animals B.fungi, plants, and animals C.plants and animals D.plants, animals, and bacteria

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Which of the following is NOT an example of a fungus? A.algae B.yeasts C. mushrooms D.molds

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Microbiologists study parasitic worms because __________. A.they usually contain bacteria and other microbes B.they cause diseases that are diagnosed by finding microscopic eggs in clinical specimens C.they were not studied by early microbiologists D.they are microscopic as adults

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Which of the following is a true statement concerning bacteria and archaea? A.Bacteria and archaea have identical types of cell walls. B.Bacteria reproduce asexually, while archaea reproduce sexually. C.Bacteria are often found in sufficiently dry environments. D.No archaea are known to cause disease in humans.

answer

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What was Leeuwenhoek's contribution to the science of microbiology? A.He developed the vaccine for smallpox. B.He discovered some of the ways in which microbes can be transmitted between individuals. C.He developed the first microscope. D.He did experiments supporting the idea of spontaneous generation.

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How are the bacteria and the archaea different from all the other cellular microbes? A.They reproduce asexually. B.They can move. C.They have cell walls. D.They have no nucleus.

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A microorganism has the following characteristics: eukaryotic, multicellular, has cell walls, and grows in long filaments. What is its general classification? A.protozoan B.fungus C.bacterium D. parasitic worm

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Modern biologists had to revise Linnaeus's system of taxonomy because __________. A.he did not know that some organisms reproduce asexually B.he only classified organisms found in Sweden C.he thought all organisms spontaneously generated D.he grouped all organisms into only two categories

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Antoni van Leeuwenhoek was the first person in history to A.prove the germ theory. B.develop a taxonomic system. C.use a magnifying glass. D.disprove spontaneous generation. E.view protozoa and bacteria.

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The microbes commonly known as ________ are single-celled eukaryotes that are generally motile. A.bacteria B.archaea C.fungi D.viruses E.protozoa

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Which of the following statements about algae is FALSE? A.they provide most of the oxygen on Earth. B.they are photosynthetic organisms. C.they are a source of food for aquatic and marine animals. D.they are important in the degradation of dead plants and animals. E..the group includes seaweeds and kelps.

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Which of the following statements about fungi is FALSE? A.yeast are unicellular. B.fungi have a cell wall. C.molds form hyphae. D.fungi are eukaryotes. E.fungi are photosynthetic.

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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of viruses? A.they are visible with a light microscope. B.they are composed of genetic material and protein. C.they are obligatory parasites. D.they are acellular. E.they are smaller than prokaryotic cells.

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Microbiology

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study of organisms too small to be seen without magn.

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Prokaryotes

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lack nucleus and other intern struc, small, simple ( bact. And arch.)

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Eukaryote

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have nucleus, internal memb., large, complex, (alg.,pro., fun. Anim, pl)

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major groups of microorganisms

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Bacteria Archaea Algae Protozoa Animals Plants

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Leeuwenhoek

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to observe microbes, magnified 300X, 1674-1723

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Redi

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1668, meat in jar, flies, disproove spontaneous generation

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Schwann

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air was source of microbes, prove by air flask, strong chemicals, prevention.

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Pasteur

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disproved spont. Gen., by prevent dust part.,1861 complete exper

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Jablot

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hay infusion, opened vessel develop microor, help disprove, spon. Gen.

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Tyndall

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after pasteurs' results,sterilize thigns, heat resistant forms of life...

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Cohn

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1876, also discovered heat resist. Form of bacteria, now termed ENDOSPORES!!!

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Needham

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boiled beef gravy, and plantinfus, seald, still develp bact. Pool

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Spallanzani

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- boiled longer, and sealed to disprove (maybe air was needed to grow)

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Jenner

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worked with smallpox, noticed milkmaids contract similar cowpox didn't get it, inoculated gardener's son with cowpoz lesion, boy contracted mild cowpox, (intentionally exposed boy and found was immune.

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"Golden Age of Microbiology"

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1860-1900, rapid advances, b Pasteur and Koch. ..as a science

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Pasteur

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1864, microbes and disease in preventing wine from spoil as pasteurization...kills bacteria in alcohol by heat. ( vinegar)

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Lister

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medical procedures and microbe diseases, spracyed (phenol) in dressings, wounds instruments, reduced deaths by 66%. Aseptic technique

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Koch

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1876, proved germ theory of disease, show bacteria actually caused disea. Developed experimental steps a specific microbe to a specific disease. Postulates!!! 1884, developed more staining technique, dyes, purple = +, neg.+ -

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Koch's postulates

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1.Find evidence of particular microbs in every case. 2.Isolate microbe from infect subj, and cultivate in lab. 3.Inoculate a susceptible healthy subj. with isolated from lab. 4.Reisolate microb from the subj.

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Ehrlich

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1890's, magic bullet would find and destroy pathogens but not harm host...discovered chemicals could treat sleeping sickness and syphilis, chemotherapy!!!

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Fleming

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1928,observed growth of staphyloccus aureus, inhibit in colony of nold, mold identitifed and active penicillin ERA OF ANTIBIOTICS WAS BEGINNING!!!

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atomic structure

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protons+, neutrons (neutral) [nucleus], electrons - surrounding.

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Ionic

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have positive(cation) and negative (anion) charges, attract eachother, for ionic bonds....NO ELECTRONS SHARED, ..form salts

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Hydrogen

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weak forces comb with polar coval bond, electrical attraction between H+ and full or partial nega on same molecule or differ., weaker than covalent, essential for life.

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Carbohydrates

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carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, longterm storage of chemical energy, ready energy sourc, backbones of nucleic acid, converts to amino acids, form cell wall, (types (mono-, Di-, and Poly-saccharides)

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Proteins

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carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, structure, enzymatic catalysis, regulation, transport, defense and offense.

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Lipids

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no reg subunits, hydrophobic (groups fats, phospholipids, waxes, steroids)

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Amino acids

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-monomers make up proteins, use 21 amino acids in synthesis of proteins, covalent bond (peptid btwn amino acids by dehydration

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Nucleic acids

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DNA and RNA, genetic material, RNA als is enzyme binds amino acids forms polypeptides. nucleotides are monomers make up nucleic acids, (phosphate, pentose, one of 5 cyclic nitrogenous bases)

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Glycocalyx

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sticky, surrounds outside of cell contains polysaccharide, polypept, or both.

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Two Types of Glycocalyx

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Capsule, Slime layer

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Capsule

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=repeating units of organic chem., firmly attached to surface of cell,, may prevent bact. to be recogn. By host

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Slime Layer

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loosely attached, water soluble, sticky layer allows prokaryotes to attach to surfaces.

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Flagella

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movement, long structures extend beyond cell surface, not on all bact. Structure=filament, book, basal body (anchors filament and hook to cell wall by a rod..) Function=rotation propels bact through environment, rotation reversible or clockwise, Runs tumbles

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Fimbriae

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sticky bristlelike projections,shorter than flagella,used to adhere, important for biofilms.

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Pili

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special type of fimbria, conjugation pili, longer than fimbria but shorter than flagella, have only one or 2 per cell, mediate transfer of DNA from 1 cell to another.

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Bacterial Cell walls

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provide structure, protect, assist some in attaching to other cells or resist antimicrobial drugs, target bacteria with antibiotics, composed of peptidoglycan,

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Gram-positive

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= thick layer of peptidoglycan, contain polyalcohols (teichoic acids), purple, 60% mycolic acid in acid fast bacteria...helps survive desiccation.

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Gram-negative

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thin layer of peptidoglycan, bilayers outside peptide...contains phospholipids, proteins, and LPS, may be impediment to treatment of diseas, pink!!!

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NAG

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= N-acetylglucosamine, similar to glucose, "glycan"

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NAM

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= N-acetylmuramic acid, similar to glucose, "glycan"

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Teichoic acid

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chemical in peptidoglycan

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Lipotechoic acid

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= formed when teichoic acids are covalently linked to lipids.

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LPS=

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Lipopolysaccharide, outerleaflet

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Lipid A

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lipid portion of LPS.

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Endotoxin

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toxic released by lipid A, killing drug, cause fever, vasodialation.

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Fluid Mosaic Model

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describes our current understanding of membrane structure, membrane proteins arrangedin a way that resembles the tiles ina mosaic, fluid free to flow

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Cytoplasmic membrane

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= separate contents of cell from outside, produce moleculses for energy storage,

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Diffusion

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net movement of a chemical down its concentration, high to low.

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Facilitated DIffusion

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proteins provide a pathway for diffusion, no energy,

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Osmosis

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diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane, but it not to solutes, high to low, water follows salt.

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Group Translocation

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an active process that occurs only in some bacteria., actively transport across membrane chemically changed...

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Cytoplasm

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gelatinous material inside a cell, fluid, elastic, aqueous.

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Inclusion

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Deposits, within bacterial cytosol.

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Ribosomes

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= sites of protein synthesis in cells

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Edospores

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durability and pathogenicity

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Cytoskeleton

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an internal network of fibers, plays a role in cell's shape.

STUDY

Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek Industrial Revolution Noble Peace Prize Poor Living Conditions Public Health

Medicine in the 20th Century (1900s) – Flashcards 98 terms

Sam Arent

98 terms

Preview

Medicine in the 20th Century (1900s) – Flashcards

question

Drugs available before Germ Theory

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Opium, Cinchona

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Opium

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Juice of seed pods of white poppy Ancient Egypt and Greece (Calomel was the only other drug used more) Prime ingredient = morphine Morphine discovered in 1806 Only relieved symptoms - no cure 1832 ingredient in morphine known as codeine - cough suppressant Laudanum = main pain medication of 1800s (opium in sherry) Often used in child care (give to crying babies)

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Cinchona

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Bark of Febrifuga tree "Fever tree" Contained quinine used to treat malaria Fever reduction, pain relief, anti-inflammatory "Jesuit's bark" or "the bark" Jesuit's brough cinchona bark from Peru Took powder, mixed in wine, drink teh liquid

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Two major stages of development in drug therapy (1800s)

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1. Purification of old drugs (from advancements in chemistry) 2. Synthesis of new drugs for the purpose of killing germs (1860s-70s) (post-Germ therapy)

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Purification of old drugs

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Early 1800s; purification of active ingredients in natural drug materials 1806 - Morphine from opium 1817 - Emetine from ipecac 1817 - Strychnine from St. Ignatius beans (stimulant, rat poison) 1819 - colchicine from autumn crocus (gout); used into early 20th century - pale yellow powder, unique to UK 1820: Quinine from cinchona - reduce fever, malaria; made into pills to ingest; very bitter 1821 - Caffeine from coffee; no medical application 1832 - Codeine from opium; supress coughing - furthe risolated from morphine

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Hypodermic syringe

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1850s - provides controlled dosages and went directly into blood stream; faster result

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Willow Bark

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NO CINCHONA Ancient Chinese and Egyptian healers used to lower fever, ease inflammation and reduce pain 1828 discovered active ingredient = Salicin

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Salicyclic Acid

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1873 Used against pain and fever Began to break down into carbolic acid in alkaline conditions (blood, pH=7.4) Believed it could provide internal antisepsis; more useful in anti-fever drug (didn't kill any germs) but sure relieved symptoms! Became popular anti-fever drug but had very painful/irritated stomach side effects

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Aspirin

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1899 In 1897, German man suffering from Rheumatism took SA to relieve symptoms Complained about stomach pains to son who was a well-known chemist at Bayer Begins to study salicylic acid and experiments with different structures and eventually makes aspirin (acetylsalicyclic acid) Marked by Bayer under the name "Aspirin" and becomes the first modern drug First drug to be discovered using a line of reasoning that took form in the late 1800s

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Chemical reasoning behind research...

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Start with a drug that has a positive effect but also likely has undesirable effects then: 1. Determine drugs chemical structure 2. Visualize/draw similar chemical structures 3. Synthesize the visualized, theoretical structures in the lab 4. Test synthesized compounds on lab animals for desirable properties, and minimal or no side effects

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Paul Ehrlich

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Early 1900s (German; 1854-1915) Traditional physicians training, MD Career spent mostly working as chemist and pharmacologist Professor at University of Berlin; a lot of research at Koch Institute "Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullets" Attempting to make a germ that would only harm bad cells "Magic bullets" - drugs that kill germs without injuring the body Also coined "chemotherapy"

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Magic bullets

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drugs that kill germs without injuring the body

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Ehrlich's approach

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Body makes it own magic bullets in the immune system (white cells and antibodies); could we make something like that? 1. Find a dye/stain that shows affinity for, and toxicity to, a germ 2. Determine its chemical structure 3. Synthesize many similar structures 4. Test each for: toxicity to germ and safety for patient

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Trypan red

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"African Trypanosomiasis" (sleeping sickness) Studied by Ehrlich Transmitted by titsee fly Came up with chemical that cured sleeping sickness - no one had ever come up with a drug/chemical to cure a disease But he was in Germany and this was a fairly exotic disease; so wasn't really appreciated as much as anticipated

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Syphilis germ

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1905 germ was discovered by another german Ehrlich set out to find a cure for syphylis Key ingredient in trypan red was arsenic so he experimented with hundreds of drugs using arsenic for syphilis

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#606 Salvarsan

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1909 first cure to syphilis that isn't harmful to patient Sent samples to labs all over the world (including Peterkin in Seattle) Wasn't a complete magic bullet because of inflammation at injection site, took several repeated injections over a year to cure syphilis Felt job was not done

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#914 Neosalvarsan

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1912 new cure for syphilis three years after initial one This IS the magic bullet Quicker to cure, less side effects and only cure until penicillin in 1940s

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Eli Lilly

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One of the biggest pharmaceutical companies in the world Before Ehlrich, pharma companies were pretty small - just chemists making compounds Once Ehrlich's methodology came out many pharma companies developed greatly All of them need large labs, expensive equipment, expensive labor, long time periods

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Drug manufacturing shift

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From small companies making compounds to big business and big investment into modern pharmaceutical industry

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Prontosil/Sulfanilamide

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German company came out with new product with the name Prontosil Claimed a new cure for several infectious diseases including strep, pneumonia, gonorrhea Sent samples out to other labs and hoped to demand positive results/demand (sales) One lab in Paris discovered the compound it was made of and made it themselves Lab was at Pasteur Institute

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Sulfa drugs

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Both French and Germans started with sulfanilamide and began to synthesize it More than 1000 different structures patented as drugs between 1935-1940 Used on Winston Churchill in 1942 when caught pneumonia in Middle East and hospitalized in Tunisia Treated with sulfapyridine (made in Britain's May and Baker)

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Defining characteristics of 20th century medicine

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Growth of Technology, Rise of Specialization, Emergence of hospital as center for delivery area

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Opthalmoscope

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Herman von Helmholtz; MD; German (1821-1894) Major works as doctor and in physics Professor at University of Berlin Developed it in 1850 Allowed to look into eye Helped understand visual perseption and color vision

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Larynoscope and various endoscopes

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1850s-60s Visualize pathology with new scopes

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Clinical Thermometer

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1860s-70s Karl Wunderlich (MD; German; 1815-1877) Thermometers of the past (back to mid-1700s) were not very reliable Realized in 1800s that signs go along with specific diseases so they needed objective characteristics (i.e. numbers) Wunderlich designed a clinical thermometer to be exact Professor at University of Lichesed in Germany Began to use as tool to collect more signs

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X-rays

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1895 by Wilhem Conrad Rontgen German physicist (NOT MD) discovered by accident Research in 1890s on different types of light rays Nov 1895 noticed ray was different than others - traveled in a straight line and penetrated opaque objects; saw inside wooden box with early x-ray By Dec 1895, published "On a New Kind of Ray" Showed an x-ray of an arm Public found super fascinating and used x-rays for everything Also public fear of immoral use of x-rays (i.e. x-ray specs to see through clothes)

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Improper use of x-rays

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Overexposure to patients to radiation Administration as therapy for infection Overexposure of medical personnel

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Specialization

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Rapid growth of medical knowledge brought about specialization from mid-1800s and on Many societies and orgs created to foster the specializing By early 1900s, at least 12 specializations From 1865 to 1930, percentage of American physicians who specialize increased from 2.5% to 75%

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Hospital modernization - Before late 1800s

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Prior to late 1800s.... They were crowded, dirty, understaffed For poor people (rich would have MD/surgeon come to them at home) Low patient attention, caretakers had very little training Prior to 1700s, hospitals run by religious organizations i.e. Catholic churchs During 1700s hospitals funded by private donations became more common

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Hospital modernization during 1800s

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During 1800s, tax supported hospitals began to open Cities grew so more hospitals became common - but care remained the same Private, religious or public monies E.g. Bellevue Hospital in New York - woman came in and gave birth to baby; by the next morning rats had eaten the baby

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Hospital modernization in later 1800s (improvements)

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1. Increased value attached to cleanlieness due to Sanitary Reform Movements (1840s-60s) and the Germ Theory (1880s-90s) 2. New Technology (x-rays, bacteriology labs) most economically site din hospitals

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Pre-1800 nurses

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Seen as Sairey Gamp, nurse in Dicken's "Martin Chuzzlewit" (1844) Fat, old, dirty, tobacco and alochol Depicted as unskilled labor, laziness, and took low-paying jobs because no other abilities Significantly changed by end of 19th century

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Florence Nightengale

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Helped establish new precedence for nursing in late 1800s English; 1820-1910 Born in Italy but moved with parents to England when young Wealthy, educated family - but wanted to be a nurse Went to Paris and had basic nursing training Came back to England when Crimean War began (1853-56) Heard stories of war and left England on personal mission to go to Crimea to provide nursing care for British Troops Referred to as "Lady with the Lamp" - changing to more regular patient care Returned back to England after war and became leader in the elevating of status of nursing Award from Queen Victoria and wrote many articles on nursing reform

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Nightengale School for Nurses

answer

1860 in St. Thomas Hospital, London Queen & British Govt gave her $225,000 as a gift/reward for her service so she created a nursing school Graduates signified professionalization Pioneers the R.N. (Registered Nurse) - needed an education to become one Beginnings of professional nursing education However, nurses still played subordinate roles (custodial roles too)

question

"Notes on Nursing" (1859)

answer

Published book by Nightengale with her philosophies 1. Provide cleanliness [Sanitary Reorm Movement] 2. Support nature's efforts to heal [Paris School] 3. Provide nourishment, hydration, warmth, ventilation, comfort, and emotional support

question

Medical education in US

answer

US trained physicians were not good Best ones came from England or Scotland because European Med Ed was more rigorous No medical schools until 1760s - probably no more than 300 MDs Most practitioners with training were surgeons and apothecaries Care also provided by midwives, ministers and folk healers

question

Medical Education in second half o f1600s

answer

Young men trained for medicine through apprenticeship No science or theory 5-7 year apprenticeship; "slave in training" Only given certificate - but didn't necessarily need one to practice

question

Early 1700s Medical Ed

answer

Young men start to go to Europe to study medicine By 1800, over 200 Americans who had trained in Europe for MD returned to US to practice University of Edinburgh was most popular i.e. Benjamin Rush

question

Medical Department of the College of Philadelphia

answer

1765, First medical school in colonies Later becomes University of Pennsylvania in 1770s Founders were two Edinburgh graduates Raised and educated in America John Morgan (Graduated 1762) and William Shippen (Graduated 1761) Used to be good friends But after starting med dept both accused other over trying to rob him of glory of founding America's first medical school But school survived because of third professor, Benjamin Rush (Edinburgh) Craik & Dick went here

question

Other pre-1800 medical schools

answer

1768: King's College (Columbia), New York, NY 1783: Harvard, Cambridge, MA 1798: Dartmouth, Hanover, NH Four medical schools total by 1800

question

How Medical Schools Operated

answer

Quality of Medical Education declined in early 1800s 19th century med schools were proprietary i.e. owned by faculty Schools competed for students/customers because it was paid by student fees; so to make school attractive they eased up on fees and standards No national standards at all Students could practice medicine by showing certificate or diploma from one of the schools Pretty much anyone could get in to medical school in 1800s Most students were 17 or 18 years old

question

19th Century medical school academics

answer

Two terms, each 14-16 weeks Second term identical to first; repeated because most weren't smart enough to get it the first time Thesis required based on library research (no clinical or laboratory aspect) - very poorly written, plagiarism Final Comprehensive examination - oral exam Cost student $5: if failed money back, if passed school kept - so proprietary schools pretty much let everyone pass Exam had around 9 faculty sit in chairs around table and student asked questions

question

Medical education and anatomy

answer

European medical schools believed students needed to do anatomy and dissections Even at good colleges students had to provide their own corpse Too many students and no way of getting bodies legally Hence "resurrectionism"

question

Resurrectionism

answer

Early 1700s (Before US had schools) No legal avenue to gain bodies for medical school use Students would steal bodies from graves, put in bags, and sell to medical school students Worked in groups of three (two to dig and one for getaway wagon) By 1752, Parliament made it legal for med schools to use bodies of executed criminals for dissection purposes Similar thing happened in America

question

The Anatomy Riots

answer

Resurrectionism happened in 1780s-90s in America In NYC 1788, for three days several deaths occurred over near King's college 1785-1855 there were seventeen other riots over stealing bodies of loved ones Families began hiring guards and developing protection for caskets

question

Burke and Hare

answer

In Edinburgh 1827-28 William Burke and William Hare ran a boarding house A boarder died in 1827 but still owed rent Took body to Edinburg and sold to Dr. Knox (for anatomy lab) A few weeks later another tenant had fever and waited for him to die Didn't die so they suffocated the person - became known as "Burking" Began burking other tenants and sold bodies to Dr. Knox By Oct 1828, 16 bodies were delivered to Dr. Knox from Burke and Hare On Halloween, friends came to visit a tenant and found the body. Called authorities and investigations began Hare cooperated but Burke did not Dr. Knox threatened and ostracized Burke went to trial and convicted for murder Hare imprisoned and Burke hanged - one of the larges public executions EVER (20,000) Burke also skinned and dissected "The Body Snatcher" 1884 was a story that came from it

question

Warburton Anatomy Act

answer

1832 the Act passed in England Lord Warburton of English Parliament pushed through act that provided "unclaimed bodies" for medical schools (e.g. the poor, prisoners) Legal source that medical schools could use to get cadavers

question

Anatomy Acts in America

answer

Began in mid 1800s 1831 - Massachusetts 1833 - Connecticut

question

Women in Medicine prior to 1850s

answer

Seen as "too delicate" or "too sensitive" for medicine; particularly dissections Always participated in medicine as midwives Barred from medical profession until 1800s - even though they had critical roles

question

Women in Medicine - pressure in 1830s and 40s

answer

1. Feminist Movement (strong in 1840s) Option for women to attend college, women began their own colleges (Seven Sisters) 2. Desire for female physicians - particularly with Ob/Gyn issues, plus male docs didn't give best attention/privacy issues

question

Powerful opposition for Women in Medicine

answer

1. Medical study an affront to modesty (degrading to women) 2. Potential for romantic encounter with male patient 3. Women intellectually incapable of medical study 4. Women emotionally unstable 5. Women physically incapable of medical practice (i.e. "monthly weakness")

question

Elizabeth Blackwell

answer

English; 1821-1920 Mid 1800s Quaker by religion; Family immigrated to US when teen Social family that lived in Cincinnati and New York In early 20s, became school teacher in Kentucky Friend became ill and wanted female doc but none were found so died Blackwell applied to medical schools beginning in 1846 Applied to Geneva Medical School, NY 1847 Treated as joke by Dean and then by students Asked for a vote to see if she could come; unanimous vote of admitting her Admitted at age 26 as an auditee in medical profession - behavior reported on regularly Graduated 1849 and first in class Couldn't find work in US - traveled to France for further study Wanted to be surgeon but lost an eye from infection 1855 returns to NY to open New York Infirmary for Women and Children 1860: Opened New York Women's Medical College 1869: Teamed with nightengale to open Women's Medical College in London Wrote book titled "Pioneer Work for Women"

question

Emily Blackwell

answer

Admitted to Rush Medical College in Chicago After a few months, faculty expelled her because she was "disruptive"/there

question

Women in Medicine shift

answer

Other women came into medicine very slowly; generally admitted to one of the few women medical schools *1860s on By 1900., 7% of physicians in US were women - but didn't change until 1960s Similar development with race in medicine

question

Race in Medicine (1)

answer

1867: Rachel Coles, first black woman to get MD 1847: David Peck, first black man to get MD (admitted to medical school before Elizabeth Blackwell) (Rush Medical College 1846 admitted; degree in late 1847) 1850s Harvard admitted 5 black students - students protested and admission rescinded

question

Race in medicine (2)

answer

1865: Slavery abolished by 13th Amendement 1868: 14th amendment allowed citizenship for former slaves 1868: First medical school opened for only Black students (Howard University - Medical Department) in DC 1896: Jim Crow segregation ruled constitutional Howard's faculty was white except Alexander Augusta

question

Alexander Augusta

answer

American; 1825-1890 Received MD from small medical school in Canada Came to US at beginning of Civil War - signed on as Union Army Military doctor After war made a hospital director but too much protest So later hired at Howard to teach anatomy

question

Meharry Medical School

answer

Second medical school for Black students founded in 1876 (after Howard)

question

Race in Medicine (3)

answer

By 1900, few black MDs in US Maybe 380 at best estimate Only 7% were graduates of traditional white colleges Other 93% from Howard or Meharry AA had own hospitals and organizations 1895: National Medical Association started by Black Physicians

question

Race in Medicine (4) 1900s

answer

Few black MDs admitted to AMA In 1950, if AA MD listed on AMA members, they were parentheses with "colored"

question

Bill-Burton Act

answer

1946 Permitted use of federal funds to construct segregated hospitals

question

Race in Medicine today

answer

As of 2006, AA US population is 12.3% Total black MDs and students was only about 2.2% of population SEVERE underrepresentation in all aspects of medicine

question

American Medical Association (AMA)

answer

1847 AMA Founded to (1) improve medical education and (2) Decrease competition among physicians and raise their income Many schools refused to change their low standards

question

AMA Committee on Education (1860s) recommended:

answer

1. Higher entrance requirements 2. Lengthening of terms to nine months 3. Increase in number of terms to four 4. Adoption of graded curriculum 5. Reform licensing laws to require final exam separate from school that attended

question

Harvard adoption of AMA recommendation

answer

By 1870 Harvard had adopted all five recommendations. Ended up with the most stringent course of study in all of American and later became the leader in medicine for years.

question

Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC)

answer

1876: AAMC founded Urged all member schools to adopt the Harvard Plan Journal of American Medical Association (JAMA) started in 1883 [BMJ and Lancet are way older though]

question

Academic leaders in medical education

answer

1600s - Padua 1700s - Edinburgh in Scotland 1800s - University o f Paris Late 1800s -Several German colleges i.e. University of Berlin

question

German university model for medical education

answer

Many American students left for Germany for MD training German model becomes what higher education in America adopts E.g. Seminar system Many PhD degrees required students to learn German

question

Johns Hopkins

answer

Wealthy Baltimore philanthropist Made millions on railroads and impressed with German model of education Took $7 million of own money and created: 1876: Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore 1889: Johns Hopkins University Hospital 1893: Johns Hopkins University Medical School Provided large endowment to start Had the same, if not higher, standards as Harvard Required undergraduate degree for medical school (unlike Harvard) Emphasized pre-med education; science Reading knowledge of French and German for admittance First class had 15 men and 3 women (daughters of trustees)

question

Growth of AMA Membership

answer

1900 - 8400 members (8%) 1910 - 70,000 members (70%) Another committee started on education and grading of medical schools AMA Wanted to close certain schools for poor standards So decided to higher outside of organization

question

Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching

answer

Funded and founded by Andrew Carnegie in New York Studied teaching and education AMA made agreement with Carnegie foundation Carnegie looked for an individual to lead research - do an objective study of all medical schools in America and Canada Chose Abraham Flexner

question

Abraham Flexner

answer

American NOT a physician Credentials in education and prominent educator from Lexington, KT Wrote books on American colleges - studied several other areas of education No stake in outcome - impartial observer 1909 Flexner began his travels to evaluate schools Visited 155 medical schools in US and Canada Jan 1909 to Apr 1910 Died in 1959 1950 AAMC created Abraham Flexner Award for Medical Education because he "revolutionized medical schools"

question

The Flexner Report

answer

1910 Report published by Abraham Flexner after being contracted by AMA and Carnegie Institute All but Johns Hopkins were 'attacked'; called "utterly wretched... disgraceful..." Recommendations: 1. 120 should be closed down for being "worse than useless" (2 in PNW: UO & Wilamette) 2. Higher Entrance Requirements (i.e. undergraduate degrees) and adopt a rigorous scientific curriculum "biomedical model" 3. End proprietary system; state funding & philanthropic support 4. Licensing exams stricter Effects: - By 1920, 31 of 155 schools closed (today 134 in US & Canada) - Remaining schools now have 4 year curriculum with each year different - Different financial support via tax dollars and philanthropy - MD salaries increased signficiantly - Training people costs a ton of money $$$ (scientific medicine requires more equipment, labs, PhD to teach) Shut out poor, rural, minorities, and women - All schools for women and AA shut down except Meharry and Howard

question

Scientific Medicine

answer

Began after Flexner (Early 1900s) A lot of change from Germ Theory to Flexner 1920s American Medicine became better as hospital developed Various progress and problems emerged

question

Blood Transfusion

answer

Tried with Harvey Late 1600s between animals, humans & animals Several fatalities Blood types different in early 1900s and realized the matching was necessary

question

Vitamins

answer

1912 1st vitamin discovered, Thiamine, Vitamin B (helps prevent beriberi - damage to nerves, enlarged heart, swelling) (came about after whole grains were a thing) Vitamin deficiencies initially believed to be from germs but once discovered vitamins there were other thoughts Scurvy treated with Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) Vital + amines = Vitamins 1917 Vitamin A fights blindness (rentinol) 1922 Vit D (calcitriol) fights rickets & osteoporosis 1937 Vitamin B3 (niacin) fight pelegra

question

Endocrine System

answer

Before 1921 (insulin discovery) diabetics died often Treat tons with diabetes after 1920s because of understanding of Endocrine system

question

Antibiotics

answer

Drug go against germs as antibiosis (coined by 1899 Pasteur student) Pasteur studies pencillium molds (decaying fruits/veggies) but never got far Doesn't appear until Alexander Fleming

question

Sir Alexander Fleming

answer

Scottish; 1881-1955 Trained MD works at St. Mary's Hospital in London Scientific Research, bacteriologist Observed action of penicillium, 1928 Left for vacation and found some staff colonies died because of something in the air (found musty mold growing on fruits in lab) > Antibacterial substance Became known as "Penicillium mold" or "Mold juice" 1929 WRote for British Journal and believed mold juice could kill germs Couldn't produce enough of it or purify or find source Won Nobel Prize in Medicine

question

Purification of Penicillin

answer

1940 at Oxford University 1941 First human test (also Oxford) Worked well but still couldn't make enough

question

US Contribution to Penicillin

answer

1942 Large scale production of penicillin begins in Peoria, Illinois by USDA (Northern Regional Research Laboratory NRRL) Asked people to send in moldy plants and rotten things

question

Mary Stevens

answer

Degree in bacteriology After hired by USDA, sent to look for moldy fruit/veggies (blue/green things) Brings a canteloupe and finds best strain from it Becomes known as "Moldy Mary" Produce thousands of doses from the single strain but still not enough

question

WWII and Penicillin

answer

1942-44 WWII Penicillin earmarked for military Got donations to build more labs for military

question

Penicillin and the Public

answer

Penicillin released for civilian use in 1945 Better production

question

Impact of Penicillin

answer

on bacterial infection: 1. Quick cure for syphilis and gonorrhea 2. Pneumonia (20% then 5% mortality) 3. Meningitis (100% then 5%) 4. Bacterial endocarditis (100% then 5%)

question

Selman Waksman

answer

American 1888-1973 PhD from Berkley in Biochemistry Worked at Rutgers, NJ lab Research on antibiotics Coins the term "Antibiotic" Discovered streptomyacin > cure for TB and bubonic plague Eventually made by Merck Later discovered 1949 neomycin - product to kill bacterial infection Neosporin derived from this 1952 got Nobel Prize for his work

question

Organ Transplants & Artificial Organs

answer

1950s and 60s brought about some extraordiantry research in artificial organs I.e. first artificial heart

question

Medical research rare in America before 20th century

answer

1893: Johns Hopkins first American med school that required research from faculty 1902: Rockefeller Insitute 1910: Rockefeller Hospital 1930: National Insitute of Health (NIH) 1946: NIH Grant Program 1946: Communicable Disease Center (1970: CDC) 1948: National Insitutes of Health 1953: NIH and clinical research 1988: National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion

question

Rockefeller

answer

1902: Rockefeller Institute Money came from philanthropy - John D Rockefeller made millions from standard oil company In 1901, grandchild died from infectious disease (scarlet fever) Took millions of personal money and opened the institute; first institution dedicated solely to "biomedical research" (trying to understand the underlying causes of disease) Also gave money to open school of medicine at University of Chicago The best served on the board i.e. Simon Flexner and Dr. William Welch 1910: Rockefeller Hospital Rockefeller institute had an electron microscope in 1940

question

National Institute of Health (NIH)

answer

1930 Began in 1889 as part of US public health serve in Staten Island New York for the immigrants coming to US Became known as the "Hygienic Laboratory" Initially related to public health and later realized they needed to recruit individuals with the expertise in chem, pharmacology, and zoology Began hiring more PhDs than MDs Moved from Staten Island to Bethesda, MA in 1930s and changed name Federal money delegated by progress to support NIH 1948: Changed to National Institutes of Health By 1998, 27 institutes of original NIH

question

Communicable Disease Center

answer

1946 part of US Public Health service Located in Atlanta, GA because malaria was a major issue when CDC formed A lot of it is connected with Emory University By 1950s major issue was STIDs 1960s - TB Now it is known as Centers for Disease Control (CDC)

question

National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion

answer

1988 CDC new name is now this By 1970s many communicable diseases had been eradicated because of vaccinations Focus shifted to chronic disease like alcohol, tobacco, drugs etc., physical activity and nutrition

question

Iatrogenic Illness

answer

Illness resulting form medical treatment What medicine can do FOR us but also what it can do TO US Dr. Robert H. Moser (MD, San Antonio) FACP Wrote "Diseases of medical progress: A Study of iatrogenic disease" in 1959 (and later 1964 and 1969) Major 'illness' resulted from thalidomide Sleeping tablet in Europe, 1959 OBs gave to pregnant patients for nausea In 60s pediatricians began to notice major birth defects with mothers who used thalidomide Didn't happen as much in US because never licensed by FDA

question

Premature Births

answer

Many babies were born prematurely meaning anything earlier than 37-42 weeks gestation Chances of survival were low back in the day But now its a lot better with NICU incubators However 24th week is about a 50/50 odd

question

Adverse Drug Reactions

answer

Since 1960s, concern for ADRs Medicine causing death

question

Medicine becoming more expensive

answer

Patient resentment over physicians income Patient anxiety over being able to afford needed care After Flexner, more med schools close, less MDs produced and greater patient base Rise of HMOs - manage health care prices

question

Impersonal nature of physician-patient realtionship

answer

More attention to signs and less on symptoms (patient's feelings) Saw patients for short amount of time "The dying man cannot get comfort from the mechanical doctor"

question

Wholistic medicine

answer

1970s backlash to impersonal-ness Treated patient as a whole person, not simply a disease Dropped "w" and wrote as Holistic 1978: American Holistic Medical Association Gentler, more natural therapies 1992: Office of Alternative Medicine

STUDY

Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek Biology Microbiology

Chapter 1 – Microbiology Flashcard 63 terms

Tilly Wilkinson

63 terms

Preview

Chapter 1 – Microbiology Flashcard

question

viruses

answer

noncellular, parasitic, protein-coated genetic elements that are dependent on their infected host.

question

biotechnology

answer

the process by which humans use the metabolism of living things to arrive at a desited product (bread, beer)

question

epidemiology

answer

the of how diseases spread

question

bacteria

answer

first living inhabitants of the earth

question

bacteria

answer

______ were responsible for changin the earth's atmosphere from one with O2 to one with O2

question

decomposition

answer

the breakdown of dead matter and wastes into simple compounds that can be directed back into the natural cycles of living things

question

CO2, nitrous oxide, methane

answer

three greenhouse gases that are produced by microbes

question

answer

___% of all organisms exist below the earth's crust

question

recombainant DNA technology

answer

______ makes it possible to transfer genetic material from one organism to another and to deliberately alter DNA

question

bacteria and fungi

answer

____ and _____ were some of the first organisms to be genetically engineered

question

bioremediation

answer

the introduction of microbes into the environment to restore stability or to clean up toxic pollutants

question

prokaryotic - eukaryotic

answer

_______ cells are 10x smaller than ______ cells

question

organelles

answer

small, double-membrane bound structures in the eukaryotic cell that perform a specific function

question

inclusion bodies

answer

prokaryotes do not have a nucleus; however, they do have _____ _____

question

inclusion bodies

answer

protein-lined compartments that can contain air or storage polymers or house selected pathways

question

prokaryotes - eukaryotes

answer

all _____ are microorganisms, but only some _____ are microorganisms

question

viruses

answer

small particles that exist at the level of complexity somewhere between large molecules and cells

question

viruses

answer

_____ are composed of small amount of hereditary material (RNA OR DNA not both) wrapped in a protein covering that is sometimes enveloped by a protein-containing lipid membrane

question

virion or virus particle

answer

outside of a host, a virus is called a ____

question

parasitic

answer

many microbiologists consider viruses to be ______ particles

question

Robert Hooke

answer

first person to use a microscope
- viewed cork and plants

question

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

answer

person who made the first single lens microscope

question

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

answer

first person to report seeing living cells under a microscope

question

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

answer

the father of bacteriology and protozoology

question

deductive approach

answer

a scientist constructs a hypothesis, tests its validity by outlining particular events that are predicted in the hypothesis and experiments to test the events

question

theory

answer

if a hypothesis is supported by a growing body of data and survives rigorous scrutiny, it becomes a _____

question

theory

answer

a collection of statements, propositions, or concepts that explains or accounts for a natural event

question

law or principle

answer

after the evidence of the accuracy and predictability of a theory becomes so compelling, it becomes a ___ or ____

question

John Tyndall

answer

_______ provided the initial evidence tht some of the microbes in dust and air have very high heat resistance and that vigourous treatment is required to kill them

question

Ferdinand Cohn

answer

_____ discovered heat-resistant endospores and clarified the reason that heat would sometimes fail to completely eliminate all microorganisms

question

Tyndall and Cohn

answer

the discoveries of these two men led to the modern sense of the word sterile

question

Robert Koch

answer

_____ was the first to clearly link a microscopic organism with a certain disease

question

Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes

answer

_____ observed that mothers who gave birth at home experienced fewer infections than those that delivered in hospitals

question

Dr. Ignaz Semmelweis

answer

_______ showed that women became infected in the maternity ward after examination from physicians coming from the autopsy room

question

Joseph Lister

answer

_____ was the first to introduce the aseptic technique to reduce microbes in the medical setting

question

phenol

answer

Listers asepsis consisted of disinfecting the air and hands with _____ prior to surgery

question

Pasteur

answer

_____ completed some of the first studies showing that human diseases could arise from infection

question

germ theory of disease

answer

Pasteurs studies that showed that human disease could arise from infection evolved into the _____

question

Koch's postulates

answer

a series of proofs that verified the germ theory and could establish whether an organism was pathogenic and what disease it caused

question

Robert Koch

answer

____ determined that microbes needed to be seperated from each other and grown in order to study them

question

Louis Pasteur

answer

the theory of spontaneous generation of living organisms from "vital forces" in the air was disproved by ______

question

nomenclature

answer

naming microbes

question

taxonomy

answer

the science of classifying living beings

question

Carl Von Linne

answer

______ laid down the basic rules for classification and established taxonomic categories (taxa)

question

nomenclature

answer

the assignment of scientific names to various taxonomic categories and individual organisms

question

classification

answer

the orderly arrangement into a heirarchy of taxa

question

identification

answer

the process of discovering and recording the traits or organisms so that they may be recognized or named and placed in a taxanomic scheme

question

Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

answer

taxanomic categories in order

question

binomial system of nomenclature

answer

the method of assigning scientific or specific names

question

genus - species

answer

the scientific name is always a combination of the ____ name followed by the _____ name

question

phylogeny

answer

the scheme that represtents the natural relatedness between groups of living beings

question

evolution

answer

states that the hereditary information in living beings changes gradually through time

question

morphology

answer

the study of the structure of organisms

question

Charles Darwin - Ernst Haeckel

answer

two people that created the first trees of life (the plant and animal kingdoms)

question

Ernst Haeckel

answer

person who created the 3rd and 4th kingdoms of Protista and Monera

question

Robert Whittaker

answer

person who created the 5th kingdom of Fungi

question

Robert Whittaker

answer

this person's five kingdom system became standard and is still used today

question

Carl Woese and George Fox

answer

two people that led to the creation of Archea based on differences in rRNA

question

Archea

answer

_____ are characterized by their ability to live in extreme environments

question

prokaryotic - eukaryotic

answer

Archea's structure closely resembles the ______ cell but its biology shows that it is actually closer to a _______ cell

question

domains (Archea, Bacteria, Eukaryia)

answer

Carl Woese and George Fox proposed the creation of ______

question

prokaryotic

answer

Archea and bacteria are two domains to classify ______ cells

question

naming
classifying
identifying

answer

three primary functions of the toxonomic system

STUDY

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek Compound Light Microscope

Microbiology Test 1 Campbell – Flashcards 130 terms

Michael Seabolt

130 terms

Preview

Microbiology Test 1 Campbell – Flashcards

question

What is microbiology?

answer

Microbiology is the study of organisms which are usually seen by a microscope, not the unaided eye.

question

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic

answer

Prokaryotic cells came into existence before the eukaryote. They do not have membrane bound organelles or a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

question

Carl Woese

answer

He created Domain, which is used as a classification system. It showed 2 distinct types of groups, Bacteria and Archaea

question

Prokaryotes

answer

Majority have cell wall with peptidoglycan. Reproduce by binary fission. About 0.3-5 nanometers.

question

Significance of Cyanobacteria

answer

produces significant amounts of oxygen; photosynthetic

question

Archaea

answer

Distinguished from bacteria by unique rRNA gene sequences. Lack peptidoglycan in cell walls. Have unique membrane lipids. Many live in extreme environments (hydrothermal vents, dead sea)

question

Protozoans

answer

unicellular, motile, sexual and asexual reproduction
ex: phytoplankton (photosynthetic)

question

Algae

answer

unicellular and multicellular
photosynthetic

question

Fungi

answer

unicellular and multicellular
Ex: yeast

question

Multicellular Parasites

answer

Helminths- parasitic worms
ex: roundworms, flatworms, flukes

question

Are virus' considered organisms

answer

No, they are considered infectious agents

question

Viruses

answer

Obligate intracellular agent
Consists of either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protein coat

question

Viroid and Virusoids

answer

Consist of only RNA; no protein coat

question

Prions

answer

consists only of protein, no DNA or RNA
ex: Mad cow disease

question

Why did RNA exist before DNA?

answer

RNA was first because it could store information and was catalytic and DNA is NOT catalytic, only a storage molecule

question

The Endosymbiotic Theory

answer

The theory that states that mitochondria and chloroplasts were acquired to the eukaryotic cell by endosymbiosis from a prokaryotic cell.

question

Who developed the Endosymbiotic Theory?

answer

Lynn Marguilis

question

Why are microorganisms important for vital activities?

answer

Essential for environmental health
Normal flora keeps you healthy

question

What is normal flora?

answer

Bacteria that is good in one place but bad in another. 500-1000 species of bacteria reside in and on the body. Bacteria outnumber cells 10:1
Ex: E. Coli

question

Why is nitrogen important for DNA?

answer

Nitrogen Fixation

question

Why did the biosphere not work?

answer

There was too much bacteria taking up all the oxygen

question

Antony Van Leeuwenhoek

answer

improved microscopy
Increased magnification 50-300x

question

What is spontaneous generation?

answer

the belief that living organisms can develop from non-living matter

question

Who challenged spontaneous generation and what did he do?

answer

Fransesco Redi challenged spontaneous generation and he did this with the meat and maggots experiment

question

Who tried to disprove Redi? What did he do?

answer

John Needham- he used broth

question

Who disproved Neeham?

answer

Spallanzani disproved Neehams experiment because he found a flaw in it.

question

What did Louis Pasture do?

answer

He created the S-curved flask to trap bacteria, but it still allowed oxygen in

question

What is Koch's Postulate?

answer

1. Present in every case of the disease. absent in healthy organisms
2. Must be isolated and grown in pure culture
3.Same disease must result upon infection of healthy organism
4.Same microorganism must be isolated again

question

Why was gelatin an issue when doing cultures?

answer

Some bacteria eat gelatin

question

What are some application of microbiology?

answer

Sewage Treatment
Bioremediation (ex. oil)
Produce useful products (ex. insulin, ethanol, amino acids, pesticides)
Genetic Engineering
Food (lactic acid, fermentation reactions)

question

Rank microorganisms smallest to largest

answer

virus, bacteria, protist, eurkaryote

question

How can viruses be seen?

answer

Through an electron microscope

question

Resolution

answer

the ability to distinguish between separate objects

question

Contrast

answer

light intensity difference between a sample and its background

question

Light Microscope

answer

Any microscope that uses light

question

Ocular Lens

answer

the lens that is looked through

question

Objective Lens

answer

One near the slide

question

Parfocal

answer

describes the microscope staying relatively focused as magnification increases

question

Parcentric

answer

slide remains centered as magnification increases

question

Bright Field Microscopy

answer

the image is darker than the background. Lenses are causing convergence. The convex lens focus the light (focal point), distance between the lens and F is the focal length

question

Resolving Power

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the minimum distance between 2 objects with them still observed as separate entities. As resolution becomes better, resolving power decreases

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What factors impact resolutions path of light? (resolution dependent on)

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Quality and size of lens
Oil Immersion
Wavelength

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Numerical Aperture

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A measure of the cone of light entering into the objective lens

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Working Distance

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distance between the edge of the objective lens and the surface of the specimen

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Relationship between oil and glass

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They have the refractive index

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Wavelengths relation to resolution

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Short wavelengths increase resolution because they can fit where longer wavelengths cant

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Average wavelength for visible light

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about 500 nm

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What are stains composed of?

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A chromophore
Charged salt- negative dye = acidic pH
positive dye = basic pH

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Which type of dye is used as a negative stain?

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Acidic

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What do stains do?

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Increase visibility
Accentuate morphological features
Preserve specimens for future study (heat)

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Heat fixation

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The internal and external cell structures are preserved. This kills the organism, inactivates the enzymes, toughens cell structures.

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Simple Stains

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usually a basic dye, stains all bacteria the same color

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Differential Stains

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Distinguishes between different types of bacteria
Gram stain and Acid Fast stain

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The Gram Stain

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Step 1: Add crystal violet, primary stain and makes everything purple
Step 2: Add iodine, mordant, makes everything bigger
Step 3: Alcohol Wash, decolorizes
Step 4: Add Safranin, counterstain

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What makes something Gram+ or Gram-

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Gram positive indicates a thick cell wall, the crystal violet and iodine mixture is not able to escape from the thick peptidoglycan layer. The opposite is true for Gram-

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Acid Fast Staining

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Acid fast is bacteria containing numerous waxy lipids (mycolic) in their cell walls. 1. Carbolfuchion and heat 2. Decolorize by acid alcohol 3. Counterstain Methalyne Blue

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Special Staining

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Used for staining specific structure inside/outside of the bacterial cell

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Moellar Stain

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A type of endospore stain
1. Carbolfushion and heat
2. decolorize
3. Counterstain with Methalene Blue

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Schaeffer-Fulton Stain

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A type of endospore stain
1. Malachite Green + heat
2. Decolorize
3. Safranine counterstain

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Capsule Stain

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A negative stain
India ink is used which is an acidic dye

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Flagella Stain

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A mordant is used to make them appear thicker

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Dark Field Microscope

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Staining not required
Dark background, bright organism
collects only the light reflected and refracted by the ORGANISM
This is used for eukaryotic cells and larger bacteria

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Phase Contrast Microscope

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No staining is required
Increases contrast by slowing down some wavelengths
Good for prokaryotes
Has 2 types of rings- annular: directs light around and through the specimen
phase: increase the contrast of light waves by speeding them up

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Fluorescence Microscopes

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UV light source
Excites fluorochromes
Fluorescent dyes

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Confocal Microscopy

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Laser examines 3D objects in multiple planes by a computer
Normally fluorescently stained

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Electron Microscopy

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Uses electro magnetic lenses and electrons
Magnifies 10,000-100,000 times

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Transmission Electron Microscopy

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Must be used under a high vacuum because air deflects
Denser regions appear darker due to more electron scattering

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Sample Preparation for TEM

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Sample must be embedded, dehydrated, soaked in plastic
Negative stain is possible with TEM as well as shadowing and freeze etching

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TEM vs Scanning EM

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TEM: radiation passing THROUGH a sample
SEM: electrons released from the sample SURFACE

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Scanning Probe Microscopes

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Most powerful
The surface is so sharp, it can touch individual atoms

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Shape of a coccus bacteria

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Round

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Shape of a bacillus bacteria

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Rod

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Shape of a Spirillum bacteria

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wavy

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Shape of a coccobacillus bateria

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round and rod

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Shape of a Vibrio bacteria

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comma shaped, uncommon

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Shape of a spirochete

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spiral, uncommon

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What is a chain

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Cell arrangement where there is a single chain in one plane

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What is a packet

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Cell arrangement where there are 3-D clumps in two planes

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What is a cluster

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Cell arrangement where the bacteria are in several planes at random

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What is the composition of the cytoplasmic membrane?

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It is made up of a bilayer of phospholipids. It is amphipathic- there is a different chemical feature on both sides. There is also a lipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails

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What is the fluid mosaic model?

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The word fluid tells us that the membrane is not static, it can more and adjust or else cells pop. It has LATERAL movement and rotation. Mosaic tells us it is not uniform throughout the membrane.

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What is flip-flop?

answer

It is a rare occurance when the fluid mosaic model moves up and down. The enzyme that makes this happen is flippase. The reason this is rare is because there is a lot of resistance from the non-polar tails to move to the other size of the cell

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Describe an Integral protein

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Goes through both sides
Makes up 70-80% of protein in the cytoplasmic membrane
Not easily extractable
Insoluble in water
Have some hydrophilic regions

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Describe a Peripheral protein

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On the inside or outside of the membrane but never both. If on the inside they are normally helping another protein and if they are on the outside they are working as receptors
20-30%
Easily Isolated
Soluble in Water
May attach to integral proteins

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What is true about both a peripheral protein and a integral protein?

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The both function as receptors for cell signaling. Both may interact with cell wall. Both are transporters of nutrients

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Functions of the cytoplasmic membrane

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Selective Barrier
Site of Transport Systems
Site of Crucial metabolic processes
Site for special receptors to decent environmental conditions

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What compounds are passive transport limited to?

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H2O, O2, CO2, and small nonpolar molecules

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Describe Facilitated Diffusion

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Controlled by shape, depends on a concentration gradient, less important in prokaryotes

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Describe the two types of active transport

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Primary- utilizes ATP and are uniporters
Secondary- utilized gradients and are symporters and antiporters

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Primary Active Transport

answer

ATP Binding Cassette Transports
Found in bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. If it is gram negative the protein will attach to the periplasm but if it is gram positive it will attach to the lipids

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Secondary Active Transport

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The proton motive force is used here which is the respiratory chain in the membrane pumps protons out setting up a concentration gradient

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What are the 3 types of electrochemical gradients?

answer

Uniport- 1 thing, 1 direction
Symport- 2 things 1 direction
Antiport- 2 things, opposite directions

question

What are the steps of phosphorylation?

answer

PEP donates phosphate to E1, pyruvate is left over
E1 is going to pass the phosphate to HPr
Phosphate goes E2a and then to e2b
Then it is passed to glucose
E2c is the transmembrane protein to where the glucose can get in but not out without the phosphate (ex. ticket booth), Glucose + phosphate = glucose 6-P

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What are siderophores?

answer

compounds secreted by bacteria that scavenge for iron and facilitates its uptake. Iron is brought back to the bacteria and absorbed.

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Describe ABC when it comes to iron transporters

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siderophores sit in the periplasm once in the cell
once it gets into the cytoplasmic membrane it pulls the iron into the cell against its gradient
the cell releases iron from the siderophore, making it able to be used

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What are some environmental hardships cells can go through

answer

changes from aqueous to hot and dry
Isotonic to hypertonic or hypotonic

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What are mycoplasma?

answer

They live in environments that are friendly to their outer membranes. They use hopanoids to deal with turgor pressure
They DO NOT handle environmental changes well!!

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What is peptidoglycan?

answer

Strands of polysaccerides that are weaved together of the cell membrane. This is unique to bacteria. This weaving provides strength to the cell wall. A tetra peptide provides the crosslinking

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What are some functions of the cell wall?

answer

Cell Shape
Protection
Nutrition
Temperature

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What is the backbone of the cell wall?

answer

Alternating Monomers of NAG and NAM which pack into each other in numerous layers

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How are NAG and NAM related to glucose?

answer

The OH is replaced with an acetyl group
NAM picks up the acetyl group
NAG picks up the acetyl group as well as a lactyl group

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Describe Gram - cell wall

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Has DAP
Has direct D-ala binds to Dap
Starts link with D-ala
Very thin cell wall, about 2-3 layers
Periplasm is more defined
Has 2 periplasms

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Describe Gram + cell wall

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Has L-lysine
Does not have a direct link. 5 glycine residues in a row connect D-ala to L-lysine. This is the peptide interbridge called penta glycine
Starts link with D-ala
Thick cell wall, 30 or more layers
Periplasm is harder to see
Does not have an outer membrane
Only 1 periplasm
More resistant to osmotic pressures
Has teichoic and lipteichoic acids

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What are tehichoic and lipteichoic acids?

answer

They are anchoring compounds in a Gram + cell wall. They add additional support to keep the peptidoglycan layers toether. Teichoic is within the cell wall and lipoteichoic is between the cell wall and the cell membrane. They carry a lot of negative charge

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What is the LPS?

answer

The LPS is a lipid attached to a polysaccharide or series of sugars.

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What 3 areas can the LPS be broken up into?

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The lipid- disaccharide of glucosamine with 3 FA attached
The Core Polysaccharide- Carbohydrates attached to lipid by KDO
0-Specific Polysaccharide- Species and strain specific

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What is an endotoxin?

answer

When the macrophages in the bodies immune system target the LPS, it can tear apart the lipid A from the sugar tail, and if the body doesn't handle it it is very toxic, like anaphylactic shock

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What is endotoxin's benefit to bacteria?

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It works as a protective layer
It functions as virulence (survival in humans)- rise in temperature can be a better environment, breakdown of cells is food. It confers negative charge in the bacteria

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What is a channel protein?

answer

diffusion of small hydrophilic molecule, can be different sizes based on selective entry of differently sized molecules

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What is Braun's Lipoprotein?

answer

Connects the outer membrane to the cell wall. Works kind of like techoic acid. It really is focused on anchoring the outer membrane.

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What does the ethanol do in the Gram staining process?

answer

It dehydrates the membrane!

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What is glycosidase?

answer

It breaks down the cell wall of bacteria in your eye (Lysozyme). It breaks down the sugar linkages in peptidoglycan and breaks the bonds between NAG and NAM

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What are beta-lactam antibiotics?

answer

An example of these antibiotics is penicillin. These type of antibiotics do NOT break down the cell wall, but they prevent the cell wall from growing. This antibiotic prevents cross linking. The weakened cell wall then ruptures and falls apart.

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What are protoplasts?

answer

Protoplasts are Gram + bacteria that do not have a cell wall, the cell membrane of this remains in tact. Protoplasts are sensitive to osmotic changes

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What are spheroplasts?

answer

they are gram negative cells without the cell wall. The cell membrane and the outer membrane are still in tact

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What is special about the mycobacterium's cell wall?

answer

The mycobacterium have an additional layer with mycolic acids. These are anchored by arabinogalactins to the peptidoglycan layer. There can also be a capsule on this bacteria. That gives the bacteria 4 layers of protection. This is why it is so hard to treat tuberculosis. To the hydrophobic nature of mycobacterium, it will always stain gram- even when its gram+, so acid fast staining is used instead

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What are components of the internal prokaryotic cell structure?

answer

Storage Granules- "inclusion bodies"
Organic Material
Inorganic Material- magnetosomes
Gas vacuoles
Nucleoid
Plasmids
Ribosomes

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Why are gas vacuoles important in prokaryotic cell structure?

answer

They are important for floating. In a bacteria like cyanobacteria, the gas collects from the environment to create a gas balloon to float up and collect more energy

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Why are nucleoids important in prokaryotic cell structure?

answer

They are where genetic information is organized. They are generally circular geneomes comprised of just one chromosome.

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Why are plasmids important in prokaryotic cell structure?

answer

Plasmids are small portions of DNA that can be exchanged bacteria to bacteria

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Why are ribosomes important for prokaryotic cell structure?

answer

Since the ribosomes are not bound by an envelope, everything can happen at the membrane which makes the process really fast

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What are some components of the external structure of prokaryotes?

answer

Glycocalyx
Fimbriae and Pili
Flagella

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What is the glycocalyx?

answer

it is a sugar coat on the outside of the prokaryote. It acts like an invisibility coat and is sticky. There are 2 types: capsule and slime layer. The capsule is tightly attached and organized, the slime layer is loosely attached and unorganized.

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What is the function of pilli and fimbriae?

answer

Pilli- genetic exchange
Fimbriae- just attachments, just kind of there

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What are the patterns of arrangement for flagella?

answer

Monotrichous- only one flagella on either the left or right side
Amphitrichous- one flagella on both sides
Lophotrichous- a tuffed piece on one or both sides
Peritrichous- flagella all over

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What is the structure of the flagella?

answer

Basal Body --> Hook --> Filament

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What is the filament?

answer

It is the tail of the flagella and it coils to leave a hollor center

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What is the hook?

answer

The hook connects the filament to the basal body

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What is the Basal Body?

answer

anchors flagella into the cell wall and cytoplasmic membrane, it gives the filament the ability to move

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What is the difference between a flagella in gram + and gram -

answer

In gram positive there is only one set of rings (M and S), and they sit in the membrane. The hook goes through the peptidoglycan.
In gram - there are two sets of rings: (M and S: P and L). The M and S sit in the membrane, the hook is attached to the outer membrane, and the P goes through the peptidoglycan and the L goes through the outer membrane

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