question

What are the three main components of the neurological system?

answer

central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous system (PNS), autonomic nervous system (ANS)

question

The CNS is composed of the ____ and the ____ ____.

answer

brain and spinal cord

question

What is the brain enclosed in? The spinal cord?

answer

cranial vault. vertebrae

question

The PNS is composed of ____ nerves and ____ nerves. Both are divided into ____ pathways and ____ pathways.

answer

cranial and spinal. afferent and efferent.

question

Afferent pathways are ____ pathways which carry ____ impulses ____ the CNS.

answer

ascending, sensory, toward

question

Efferent pathways are ____ pathways which carry ____ impulses ____ from the CNS.

answer

descending, motor, away

question

What do efferent pathways innervate?

answer

skeletal muscles or effector organs

question

The ANS consists of ____ neurons and ____ axons.

answer

sensory, motor

question

What is the ANS responsible for?

answer

monitoring changes in internal environment and bringing about appropriate changes in them

question

The contraction of both ____ muscle and ____ muscle is controlled by motor neurons of the ANS.

answer

smooth, cardiac

question

What system is the ANS considered a part of?

answer

PNS

question

What part of the nervous system is responsible for responding to changes in the external environment?

answer

sensory-somatic nervous system

question

What is considered the fore-brain? (2)

answer

telencephalon and diencephalon

question

What is considered the hind-brain? (3)

answer

cerebellum, pons and medulla

question

What is considered the brain stem? (3)

answer

midbrain, pons, medulla

question

Primary cell of the nervous system

answer

neuron

question

Where are most neurons located?

answer

CNS

question

Neurons in the PNS are found in groupings, called ____ or ____.

answer

ganglia or plexuses

question

What is the cell body of a neuron called?

answer

soma

question

In the soma (neuron cell body), ____ occurs as well as ____ production.

answer

metabolism, neurotransmitter

question

What are dendrites?

answer

thin processes that carry nerve impulses TOWARD the cell body

question

Where are neurotransmitters released?

answer

terminal end of axon

question

Axons carry nerve impulses ____ from the cell body.

answer

away

question

A typical neuron has how many axons?

answer

one

question

An axon may be covered with a layer of myelin, which is made out of what?

answer

lipids

question

What is the entire myelin membrane called?

answer

myelin sheath

question

The myelin sheath is interrupted at regular intervals by ____ of ____, where it is possible for axons to then ____.

answer

nodes of Ranvier, branch

question

What is the fuel source of neurons?

answer

predominantly glucose, but insulin is not required for cellular glucose uptake in the CNS

question

What cells make myelin in the periphery? In the CNS?

answer

Schwann's Cells. Oligodendrocytes

question

What is divergence?

answer

the ability of axonal branches to influence a number of different neurons

question

What is convergence?

answer

branches of a variety of numbers of neurons "converge" on and influence a single neuron

question

The ____ of a nerve impulse increases when there is myelin.

answer

velocity

question

Myelin speeds impulses by acting as an ____. The ions flow between ____, rather than along the....

answer

insulator, segments, entire length of the membrane

question

With myelin, the current "____ ____" the myelinated area but only if the gap is every ____-____ mm.

answer

jumps under, 1-3

question

What is it called when ions flow between segments rather than along the entire length of the membrane?

answer

saltatory conduction

question

Neurons are classified structurally on what?

answer

the number of processes (projections) extending from the cell body

question

What are the four types of neurons based on structure?

answer

unipolar, pseudounipolar, bipolar, multipolar

question

What does a pseudounipolar neuron look like?

answer

one process that divides and goes into two directions.

question

Where are pseudounipolar neurons typically found?

answer

typical of sensory neurons in cranial and spinal nerves

question

What does a bipolar neuron look like?

answer

it has two distinct processes

question

Where are bipolar neurons found?

answer

connect rod and cone cells of retina

question

Multipolar neurons are the most common neurons. They have multiple ____ and are capable of much ____.

answer

processes, branching

question

Neuroglial cells provide ____ support and ____ for neurons in the CNS.

answer

structural, nutrition

question

Neuroglial cells are the "____ ____."

answer

nerve glue

question

What are the four types of neuroglial cells?

answer

oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, microglia, ependymal

question

What is the function of an oligodendrocyte?

answer

produce myelin in the CNS

question

What is the function of an astrocyte?

answer

form the BBB, wrap around vessels and create a tight junction between neurons and blood vessels. important drug implications.

question

What is the function of a microglia?

answer

macrophage of the brain, eat up old tissue, foreign substances, debris

question

What is the function of an ependymal cell?

answer

form lining in the CSF

question

Do mature nerve cells divide?

answer

no

question

What may injury to a nerve cell mean?

answer

permanent loss of function

question

Degeneration occurs when an axon is severed. The CNS is not efficient at ______.

answer

regeneration

question

What is the only part of a nerve cell that can be repaired?

answer

the axon, not the cell body

question

What can make it more likely that an axon will be regenerated?

answer

the more peripheral the injury, the easier it is to repair

question

What cells are thought to cause scarring in the brain that prevents healing?

answer

astrocytes

question

What part of the nervous system CAN be efficient in regeneration? What is this limited to though?

answer

PNS. limited to myelinated post-synaptic fibers

question

Following nerve injury, the ______ portion of cut axons ______. This is done by what type of regeneration?

answer

distal, regenerate, Wallerian

question

Following a nerve injury, what happens to Schwann cells that had previously myelinated the axon?

answer

they de-differentiate and begin to proliferate.

question

How many days post-injury do new terminal sprouts project from the proximal segment?

answer

7-14

question

Aside from proliferating, what other role do Schwann cells play post-nerve injury?

answer

they also produce factors that promote re-growth of axon

question

Factors that promote re-growth of an axon can be found in the ______ ______. What two in particular?

answer

extracellular matrix. laminins and fibronectins

question

What four factors play a large role in whether an injured nerve will regenerate?

answer

location of the injury, type of injury, inflammatory response, process of scarring

question

How does the location of a nerve injury affect whether or not it will regenerate?

answer

the closer to the cell body of the nerve, the greater the likelihood that the never will not regenerate.

question

Nerve injury regeneration: ______ injuries are more likely for recovery than a ______ injury. Why?

answer

crushing, cutting. cut nerves cause scarring which blocks or slows regeneration.

question

How does the inflammatory response affect regeneration of injured nerves?

answer

must work well (cannot be too much or too little)

question

What is a synapse?

answer

the space between adjacent neurons

question

Impulses transmitted across synapses are either done so by ______ or ______ conduction.

answer

chemical or electrical

question

What are chemical conductors transmitted across synapses called?

answer

neurotransmitters

question

How many directions can neurotransmitters be transmitted in?

answer

only ONE

question

What are the two categories of nerves based on the direction of nerve impulses?

answer

presynaptic neurons (relay the nerve impulse TOWARD the synapse) and postsynaptic neurons (relay nerve impulses AWAY from synapse)

question

Order of transmission: ______-->______ neuron-->SYNAPSE-->______ neuron-->______

answer

axon, presynaptic neuron, postsynaptic neuron, dendrite

question

What are some common neurotransmitters?

answer

norepinephrine, acetylcholine, dopamine, histamine, GABA, serotonin

question

There are more than ______ neurotransmitters.

answer

30

question

Neurotransmitters are stored on one side of the ______ cleft. The ______ site is stored on the other.

answer

synaptic, receptor

question

What happens when a neurotransmitter binds at a receptor site?

answer

it changes the permeability of the postsynaptic neuron. it changes the neuron's membrane potential.

question

When a neurotransmitter binds with receptor sites of a postsynaptic neuron, one of two things may happen: the postsynaptic neuron may be ______ (______), or ______ (______).

answer

excited (depolarized), inhibited (hyperpolarized)

question

What neurotransmitter is one of the best inhibitors in the body?

answer

gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)

question

Each neuron is connected with numerous other neuron, receiving...

answer

numerous impulses from them

question

What is summation? Where does it take place?

answer

the adding together of impulses at the axon hillock

question

What is happens re:summation if the neuron gets only excitatory impulses? What about if it gets as many inhibitory as excitatory?

answer

If it gets only excitatory then it was also generate an action potential. if gets as many excitatory as it does inhibitory then they will cancel each other out the nerve impulse will stop there.

question

What is temporal summation?

answer

the effects of successive, rapid impulses received from one neuron at the same synapse.

question

In temporal summation, there is a ______ relationship.

answer

time

question

How are the potentials in temporal summation classified?

answer

depending on whether they bring the post-synaptic neuron closer to, or further away from, the threshold required to produce an action potential

question

What are the two classifications of potentials in temporal summation?

answer

excitatory post-synaptic potentials (EPSPs) and inhibitory post synaptic potentials (IPSPs)

question

What happens in spatial summation?

answer

two or more separate inputs arrive almost simultaneously from different pre-synaptic neurons. the individual PSPs add together (bombardment)

question

What are 4 different protective structures in the CNS?

answer

cranium, meninges, cerebral spinal fluid (CSF), vertebral column

question

What is the forebrain also called?

answer

telencephalon

question

What are the components of the forebrain?

answer

two cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum), limbic system, basal ganglia

question

The cerebrum is the ______, most highly ______ part of the human brain.

answer

largest, developed

question

What is the difference between white and grey matter?

answer

grey matter is cell bodies of neurons. white matter is myelinated nerve fibers.

question

What occurs in the prefrontal area of the forebrain? (3)

answer

goal oriented behavior (concentration), short term/recall memory, inhibition of limbic areas of the CNS

question

The premotor area is also called ______ ______.

answer

Brodmann area

question

In the premotor area of the forebrain there is ______ of motor movements and control of ______ ______ ______ that control eye movements.

answer

programming, frontal eye fields

question

The primary motor area of the forebrain is responsible for what?

answer

specific muscle movement

question

What structure containing CSF is found in the forebrain?

answer

lateral ventricles

question

What is the corpus callosum?

answer

white matter that connects the 2 hemispheres and allows communication between them

question

The limbic system involves structures around the ______ ______. It is responsible for mediating ______ through a connection in the ______ ______.

answer

corpus callosum. emotion. prefrontal cortex.

question

Aside from mediating emotions, the limbic system is also involved in ______ behavioral responses, ______ reaction to emotion, ______ behaviors, ______ rhythms and ______.

answer

primitive, visceral, feeding, biologic, smell

question

The basal ganglia involve cerebral nuclei referred to as the ______ ______ and ______. They are referred to as the ______ system and they transverse...

answer

corpus striatum, amygdala, extrapyramidal, through other parts of the brain

question

What are the basal ganglia responsible for? What are two diseases in which this area of the brain is involved?

answer

fine tuning motor movements. Parkinson disease and Huntington's chorea

question

What is an example of a time when we are using our basal ganglia?

answer

when we practice an activity (e.g. sports)

question

What are the two areas of the brain involved in the sensory and motor aspect of speech?

answer

Wernicke's and Broca's

question

Wernicke area is the ______ speech area. Broca area is the ______ speech area.

answer

sensory, motor

question

Wernicke area is responsible for the ______ and ______ of speech. Dysfunction in this area results in ______ aphasia, or ______.

answer

reception, interpretation, receptive, dysphasia

question

Someone with ______ aphasia will not be able to understand or interpret what is being said to them.

answer

Wernicke

question

What happens in Broca's aphasia? What is this dysfunction also called?

answer

person knows what they want to say but can't speak it. expressive aphasia

question

What does the diencephalon include? (4)

answer

epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus, subthalamus

question

The epithalamus includes the ______ ventricle and is closely associated with the ______ system.

answer

third, limbic

question

The thalamus is responsible for relaying ______, ______ ______, and ______ signals to the cerebral cortex.

answer

sensation, spatial sense, motor signals

question

In addition to being a relay station to the cerebral cortex, the thalamus is also involved in the regulation of ______, ______ and ______.

answer

consciousness, sleep and alertness

question

Sensations are received by the thalamus but require ______ process for interpretation.

answer

cortical

question

The thalamus is also a relay center from the ______ ______ and ______to the "right" motor area.

answer

basal ganglia, cerebellum

question

The hypothalamus is known as the ______ gland.

answer

master

question

The hypothalamus performs ______ functions, most of which relate directly or indirectly to the regulation of ______ activities by way of other ______ regions and the ______ system.

answer

vital, visceral, brain, autonomic

question

What other two glands does the hypothalamus interact with?

answer

posterior portion of the pituitary gland and the pineal gland

question

What is the pineal gland responsible for synthesizing?

answer

melatonin

question

The hypothalamus is responsible for ______ regulation, ______ and ______ nervous system activity.

answer

temperature, wakefulness, autonomic

question

What is the midbrain also called?

answer

mesencephalon

question

What are the three main structures of the midbrain?

answer

corpora quadrigemina, tegmentum, and the basis pedunculi

question

What are the basis pedunculi referred to together as?

answer

cerebral peduncles

question

The midbrain is involved in ______ and ______ visual motor movements (the ability to track an object across the visual field) and the positioning of the ______ to improve hearing.

answer

voluntary and involuntary, head

question

Will dopamine IV cross the BBB?

answer

no

question

The substantia nigra is part of the ______ ______. It synthesizes ______.

answer

basal ganglia, dopamine

question

Dopamine is a ______ that is a precursor of ______. Its dysfunction is associated with ______ disease. What is its role in the brain (different from peripheral role)?

answer

neurotransmitter, norepinephrine. Parkinson, helps us to fine tune movements.

question

Also in the midbrain are the nuclei of cranial nerves ______ and ______.

answer

III and IV

question

The ______ ______ is located in the midbrain and and carries CSF. Blocking of this aqueduct can cause ______. What is it also called?

answer

cerebral aqueduct. hydrocephalus. aqueduct of Sylvius.

question

What is the hindbrain also called?

answer

metencephalon and myelencephalon

question

The metencephalon includes the ______ and the ______ (bridge).

answer

cerebellum, pons

question

The cerebellum is involved in the ______, ______ fine-tuning of motor control. It is involved in ______ and ______. There are ______ hemispheres. It is involved with ______ movements and control of muscle ______.

answer

reflex, involuntary, balance and posture. two. fine, tone.

question

The cerebellum is involved in the overall coordination of ______ activity in response to ______ input and descending "traffic" from higher centers.

answer

muscle, proprioceptive

question

What part of the brain does alcohol affect?

answer

the cerebellum

question

The pons is responsible for transmitting information from the ______ to the ______ ______ as well as transmitting information between the two ______ ______. Cranial nerves ______ through ______ are also located here.

answer

cerebellum, brain stem. cerebellar hemispheres. V-VIII

question

The myelencephalon is composed of the ______ ______.

answer

medulla oblongata

question

The medulla oblongata is the ______ portion of the brain stem. It is responsible for reflex activities, such as...

answer

lowest. heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, coughing, sneezing, swallowing, vomiting

question

The nuclei of cranial nerves ______ through ______ are located in the myelencephalon.

answer

IX through XII

question

The major portion of descending ______ pathways cross to the other side at the medulla.

answer

cross

question

The ______, ______ and ______ together make up the brain stem.

answer

midbrain, medulla, pons

question

The brain stem connects the ______ of the brain, the ______ and the ______ ______.

answer

hemispheres, cerebellum, spinal cord

question

In the brain stem, there is the reticular formation, which is a large network of connected tissue. What is it also known as?

answer

reticular activation system (RAS)

question

The RAS controls ______, ______ and the ability to consciously ______ ______. It acts as a ______ by dampening the effect of repeated stimuli. It also helps our ______ from becoming overloaded.

answer

sleep, wakefulness, focus attention. filter. senses.

question

The spinal cord is divided by ______ sections. With a cross section, it has a ______-shaped inner core.

answer

vertebral, butterfly

question

The gray matter of the spinal cord is nerve cell bodies. The white matter is ______ and ______ pathways called spinal ______. These are named by their ______ and ______ points.

answer

ascending and descending, tracts, beginning and ending

question

What are three ascending tracts of the spinal column?

answer

dorsal white column (fasciculus gracilis, fasciculus cuneatus), lateral spinothalamic tract, anterior spinothalamic tract

question

What are three descending tracts of the spinal column?

answer

lateral corticospinal tract, medial reticulospinal tract, vestibulospinal tract

question

What are the five spinal cord divisions and how many vertebrae are in each?

answer

cervical (8), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (5), coccygeal (1)

question

The spinal cord has a central mass of ______ matter with a peripheral array of ______ matter (funiculi). It consists of ______ and ______ tracts.

answer

gray, white, ascending and descending

question

What are the two divisions within the spinal cord?

answer

somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

question

The somatic nervous system has pathways that regulate ______ control of ______ muscle.

answer

voluntary, skeletal

question

The ANS regulates the body's ______ through ______ control of organ systems. What are the two components of it?

answer

viscera, involuntary, sympathetic, parasympathetic

question

What are reflex arcs?

answer

a set of motor responses that occur when neural circuits in the spinal cord are activated

question

Reflex arcs are used to respond to ______. There is protective circuitry for ______ output.

answer

stimuli, motor

question

What are the structures needed for a reflex arc?

answer

receptor, afferent (sensory neuron), efferent (motor) neuron, an affector muscle or gland

question

Do you need brain function for a reflex arc to occur?

answer

no

question

What is a neuromuscular junction also called?

answer

myoneural junction

question

Contraction of muscles is triggered by ______ ions and ______. During contraction the length of the ______ changes.

answer

calcium, coupling, sarcomere

question

During relaxation of muscles, the action potential on the muscle fiber ceases due to destruction of ______ at the ______ junction by ______.

answer

acetylcholine, myoneural, acetycholinesterase

question

The corticospinal spinal tract is made up of ______ fibers which connect the ______ ______ and the ______. It is important for ______ and ______ movements, as well as ______ and ______ movements.

answer

efferent, spinal cord, brain, hand and finger, foot and toe

question

Which side of the spinal cord does the corticospinal tract run down?

answer

both

question

Damage of the corticospinal tract results in a ______ reflex. Does this occur on both sides?

answer

Babinksi reflex

question

A positive Babinski reflex is the toes....

answer

pointing up rather than curling when the bottom of the foot is stroked

question

When can a Babinski reflex be normal?

answer

when the person is 2 years of age or younger

question

What are three motor pathways?

answer

corticobulbar, reticulospinal, vestibulospinal

question

The corticobulbar tract is essentially the same as the ______ tract but consists of a ______-neuron chain. It is involved in both lower ______ neurons and is involved in precise motor movements in the ______ and ______.

answer

corticospinal, two, motor, face and neck

question

The reticulospinal tract modulates motor movement by ______ and ______ spinal activity. It keeps us ______.

answer

inhibiting, exciting. upright

question

The vestibulospinal tract causes ______ muscles to rapidly contract which ______ the body and is essential for ______.

answer

extensor, stabilizes, balance

question

The vestibulospinal tract is involved when a person starts to...

answer

fall backwards

question

The vestibulospinal reflexes (VSR) keep the body ______ and prevent ______ when the body is ______ knocked off balance.

answer

upright, falls, unexpectedly

question

When is an example of when VSRs are seen?

answer

in extreme leg and arm positions of a speed skater rounding a turn

question

How do the vestibular nuclei get information about any tilting movement?

answer

when a person is standing upright, the gravity sensors of the inner ear constantly monitor the position of the head and body and send any info to the vestibular nuclei

question

Once the vestibular nuclei sense that a person is falling, what happens next?

answer

this info is relayed down the spinal cord to the areas controlling limb muscles

question

How do VSR allow a person to resist falls?

answer

it will usually tend to relax groups of muscles on one side of the body and contract similar groups on the other

question

Where does the reticulospinal tract originate?

answer

in the reticular formation of the pons and medulla oblongata and then descends to the spinal cord

question

The reticulospinal tract mediates ______ adjustments and ______ movements. It helps the body to maintain ______.

answer

postural, head, balance

question

Small movements of the body are detected by ______ neurons. ______ commands to counteract these movements are sent through the ______ tracts to appropriate muscle groups throughout the body. It is seen dramatically when a person stops themselves from falling ______.

answer

sensory, vestibulospinal, backwards

question

The reticulospinal tract is important for the coordination of ______ and ______ movements.

answer

head and eye

question

Pyramidal pathways consist of the ______ and some ______ tracts. They directly innervate ______ neurons of the spinal cord or brainstem, or certain ______ ______ nuclei. They are ______.

answer

corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts. motor, cranial nerve. voluntary

question

Why is the extrapyramidal system EXTRApyramidal?

answer

to differentiate it fro the tracts of the motor cortex that travel through the pyramids of the medulla

question

The extrapyramidal system modulates and regulates anterior/______ ______ cells.

answer

ventral horn cells

question

Sensory pathways are afferent or efferent?

answer

afferent

question

Sensory pathways (afferent) are composed of the ______ (dorsal) column, and the anterior and lateral ______ tracts.

answer

posterior, spinothalamic

question

The posterior column of the spinal cord transmits fine ______, ______ and ______ signals to the brain. This is called "______" information.

answer

touch, vibration, proprioception, epicritic

question

Epicritic information is ______ and well-______.

answer

acute, well-localized

question

Together, the anterior and lateral spinothalamic tracts carry vague ______, ______ and ______ information to the brain.

answer

touch, pain and temperature

question

Of the anterior and lateral spinothalamic tracts, alpha delta fibers conduct ______, ______ pain and C fibers conduct ______, ______ pain.

answer

immediate, sharp. dull, burning

question

The lateral and anterior spinothalamic tracts together carry protopathic information. What is this?

answer

primitive and undiscriminating

question

Mnemonic for remembering names of the cranial nerves

answer

Oh, oh, oh! To touch and feel very good velvet at home. (Olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, vestibulocochlear, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, hypoglossal)

question

Mnemonic for remembering cranial nerve function (sensory, motor, mixed)

answer

Some say marry money but my brothers say big brains matter more. (Olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, vestibulocochlear, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, hypoglossal)

question

The meninges of the brain consist of the ______, ______ and ______ maters.

answer

dura, arachnoid, pia

question

The outer layer of the dura mater forms the ______ of the skull. The inner dura forms rigid ______ that support and separate brain structures.

answer

periosteum, membranes

question

What is the falx cerebri?

answer

a part of the inner dura that dips between the 2 hemispheres and is anchored at the ethmoid bone

question

The ______ ______ is a membrane that separates cerebellum from cerebral structures.

answer

tentorium cerebelli

question

The arachnoid mater is ______ and ______-like. It follows the contours of the ______ structures.

answer

spongy, web. cerebral

question

The pia mater provides support for ______ ______ serving brain tissue.

answer

blood vessels

question

The subdural space is between the ______ and ______ mater. There are many small bridging ______ with little support. Injury/disruption results in ______ ______.

answer

dura and arachnoid. veins. subdural hematoma.

question

The subarachnoid space is between ______ and ______ mater. It contains ______.

answer

arachnoid and pia. CSF

question

The choroid plexus is very ______. It arises from the ______ membrane and adheres to the contours of the brain and spinal cord. It produces ______.

answer

delicate. pial. CSF.

question

The epidural space lies between the ______ ______ and the ______. It extends down the spinal column and is the ______ part of the spinal canal.

answer

dura mater, skull. outermost

question

What four things does the epidural space contain?

answer

lymphatics, spinal nerve roots, loose fatty tissue, small arteries

question

The epidural space also contains a large network of ______-walled blood vessels called the...

answer

thin, epidural venous plexus

question

The role of CSF and the ventricle system is the protect ______ structures. It is clear and ______.

answer

cord, colorless

question

What is the function of CSF in the brain?

answer

to protect meninges, nerve roots and blood vessels from the bulk/tug of the brain, keeps it in suspension

question

How much CSF is there circulating in the ventricles and subarachnoid space at any given time?

answer

125-150 mL

question

CSF is made from ______. Eventually it circulates throughout the CNS and returns to the ______. ______ mL are produced daily.

answer

blood, blood, 600

question

CSF exerts pressure within the brain and spinal cord. What is the normal pressure?

answer

5-14 mm Hg

question

What is the nucleus pulposas? What is it made up of? What is its function?

answer

the intervertebral disk. pulpy mass of elastic fiber. a shock absorber--protects against vertebral damage.

question

What is a common source of back problems?

answer

nucleus pulposas: rupture, protrusion, compression of spinal cord or nerve root

question

How much of the cardiac output does the brain receive? What other organ is this the same as?

answer

20%. same as the kidneys.

question

What are the two main arteries that supply blood to the brain?

answer

internal carotid, vertebral

question

What efficiently supplies blood to the brain? It is a looping pattern that provides for a complex system of ______.

answer

Circle of Willis. redundancy.

question

What does the BBB do?

answer

selectively inhibits some potential harmful substances in the blood from entering the interstitial spaces of the brain or CSF

question

The BBB is characterized by a ______ ______ between ______ cells of brain cell capillaries.

answer

tight junction, endothelial

question

What cells of the brain are involved in the BBB?

answer

astrocytes

question

What are the three major purposes of the BBB?

answer

1. protects brain from "foreign substances" in the blood that may potentially cause brain injury. 2. protects the brain from hormones and neurotransmitters produced endogenously. 3. maintains a constant homeostatic environment for the brain.

question

What things can disrupt the BBB?

answer

trauma, ischemia, inflammation, pressure, injury to the brain can open the BBB, BBB that is not fully formed at birth

question

What things can open the BBB?

answer

hypertension, hyperosomolity, microwaves exposure, radiation exposure

question

Where does the blood supply to the spinal cord come from?

answer

off vertebral arteries and from branches from several regions of the aorta

question

Blood supply to spinal cord: off vertebral arteries, from ______ of cranium: ______ ______ artery and paired ______ ______ arteries.

answer

base, anterior spinal, posterior spinal

question

The venous drainage of the spinal cord ______ the arterial supply. Where does it drain into?

answer

parallels. drains into venous sinuses between dura and periosteum of vertebrae.

question

What are the two components of the peripheral nervous system?

answer

cranial nerves and the spinal nerves (plus their branches and ganglia)

question

Cranial and spinal nerves are composed of individual ______ wrapped in a ______ sheath.

answer

axons, myelin

question

Spinal nerves contain both ______ and ______ neurons; these are called "______ ______."

answer

sensory, motor, mixed nerves

question

What are plexuses?

answer

networks of nerve fibers

question

What do the main spinal nerve plexuses innervate? (2)

answer

skin , underlying muscles of limbs

question

How are the main spinal nerve plexuses named?

answer

according to the vertebral level they exit

question

An area of skin may be supplied by how many spinal nerves?

answer

just one

question

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

answer

31 (8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 1 coccyx)

question

Each of the spinal nerves relay ______ (including ______) from a particular region of skin to the brain.

answer

sensation, pain

question

What is a dermatome?

answer

an area of skin supplied mainly by a single cranial nerve

question

Viruses, such as ______ ______, originate in a ______ ______ ______, migrate along the spinal nerve to affect the area of skin sensed by that nerve.

answer

herpes zoster, dorsal root ganglion

question

The ANS consists of ______ neurons and ______ axons.

answer

sensory, motor

question

The ANS consists of bundles that run between the CNS, especially the ______ and ______ ______.

answer

hypothalmus, medulla oblongata

question

The ANS reaches all parts of the body, both ______ and ______.

answer

visceral and somatic

question

What parts of the body is the ANS particularly active in?

answer

heart, lungs, viscera, glands (both exocrine and endocrine)

question

What is the role of the ANS?

answer

responsible for monitoring conditions in the internal environment and bringing about appropriate changes in them

question

The contraction of both ______ muscle and ______ muscle is controlled by motor neurons of the ANS.

answer

smooth, cardiac

question

The ANS is a ______-neuron pathway.

answer

two

question

ANS: sensory signals from ______ and ______ send signals to the autonomic neurons in the brain and spinal cord. A ______ neuron cell body is located within the CNS (______ ______ or ______ ______). Preganglionic fibers (______ fibers) synapse with a ganglionic neuron located in the ______. A ______ fiber terminates on the ______ organ (heart, stomach, etc).

answer

viscera and skin, preganglionic, brain stem or spinal cord, efferent, PNS, postganglionic, effector

question

What larger system is the ANS part of?

answer

PNS

question

Are we aware of workings of the ANS in most situations? Is this system voluntary?

answer

no. no--involuntary and reflexive (e.g we do not notice when blood vessels change size but we may feel our hearts beat faster)

question

We can train ourselves to have some control over some functions of the ANS such as ______ ______ and ______.

answer

heart rate, BP

question

What are the two main branches of the ANS?

answer

PSNS, SNS

question

Neurotransmitters may be classified as ______ or ______.

answer

cholinergic or adrenergic

question

In what instances in the nervous system is acetylcholine used a neurotransmitter?

answer

ALL PREganglionic fibers release Ach (both parasympathetic and sympathetic). parasympathetic POSTganglionic fibers also release Ach.

question

______ receptors bind with Ach.

answer

Cholinergic

question

Adrenergic fibers release what neurotransmitter?

answer

norepinephrine

question

When is norepinephrine released as a neurotransmitter?

answer

sympathetic POSTganglionic fibers release NE EXCEPT those that innervate sweat glands and some blood vessels in the skin and skeletal muscles)

question

Alpha 1 receptors produce ______ or ______. Stimulation of of alpha 1 is the primary response caused by ______. This neurotransmitter will cause ______ when it stimulates alpha 1.

answer

excitation or stimulation. norepinephrine. vasoconstriction.

question

Alpha 2 receptors cause ______ or ______. Most alpha receptors on effector organs are alpha 1 or 2?

answer

relaxation or inhibition. alpha 1

question

What should come to mind with beta 1 receptors? What about beta 2?

answer

cardiac stimulation. bronchodilation.

question

Beta 1 receptors cause increased ______ ______ and ______, in addition to release of ______ from the kidneys.

answer

heart rate, contractility, renin

question

Beta 2 receptors cause ______, in addition to stimulating the ______ ______ and ______ of the heart muscle.

answer

bronchodilation, heart rate and contractility

question

Stimulation of beta 2 receptors: dilates ______ artery and ______ to mucles, stimulates ______-______ pressure, causes ______ synthesis in the liver and ______ production.

answer

hepatic, circulation, eye-intraocular, glucose, insulin

question

Catecholamines are released in circulation during times of ______ or ______ stress.

answer

physical or emotional

question

What is a naturally occuring catecholamine in the SNS?

answer

dopamine

question

Dopamine effects: increased ______ ______, ______ and ______ ______. Increased ______. Dilates blood vessels in the ______, ______, ______ and ______.

answer

heart rate, contractility, cardiac output. BP. brain, heart, kidneys, mesentery

question

Dopamine cannot cross the ______, therefore it cannot be given as a ______ drug.

answer

BBB, P.O.

question

What is given to patients who need increased dopamine (e.g. Parkinson's disease)?

answer

a dopamine precursor (e.g. L-dopa)

question

Dopamine is available ______ for use in critical care areas.

answer

IV

question

Adrenergic catecholamines are also called sympathomimetics. Why?

answer

because they mimic the sympathetic nervous system

question

Where are epinephrine and norepinephrine produced? Where are they released from?

answer

adrenal medulla, adrenal glands

question

Norepinephrine used to be called ______ and epinephrine used to be called ______.

answer

noradrenalin. adrenalin.

question

Norepinephrine: raises ______ ______, increases ______ ______, causes ______ to be released and increases blood flow to the ______.

answer

heart rate, blood pressure, glucose, muscles

question

Epinephrine raises ______ ______, constricts ______ ______ dilates ______ and suppresses the ______ system.

answer

heart rate, blood vessels, pupils, immune

question

The parasympathetic NS originates from cell bodies in the...

answer

spinal cord, in the sacral region

question

What cranial nerves in the medulla oblongata form the preganglionic fibers of the PSNS? (4)

answer

III, VII, IX, X

question

Preganglionic fibers of the PSNS from the medulla or spinal cord project to ganglia located where?

answer

CLOSE to the target organ

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