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Acoustics

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science of sound that deals with modification of sound, analysis of sound; the study of sound especially of its' generation, transmission, and reception.

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Inertia

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Tendency of matter to remain at rest or in motion unless acted on by an outside force.

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Elasticity

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Restoring force that brings an object back to its original size, shape, or position after having been displaced or deformed.

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Condensation

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AKA "Compression"; particles get condensed then separated (rarefaction); when condensed, there's high pressure!!-- (sound wave)

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Production of Sound Components

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1. Force= (Ex): air pressure coming out of lungs 2. Medium= (Ex): vocal folds 3. Object= (Ex): air -when a force sets an object into vibration or motion in a given medium, then the sound is produced. -during human speech production, air acts as the force @ the same time that it acts as the medium!

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Waveform

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1 way to graphically represent sound; include Point maximum displacement, amplitude (vertical axis), time (horizontal axis); -over time the amplitude (sound) will decrease until we no longer hear the sound.

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Sine Wave

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AKA "Sinusoidal Wave"; represents simple harmonic motion; 1 complete motion (from beginning to end) of this simple sound.

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Cycle

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meaning a repetition; 1 full oscillation

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Period

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Duration of 1 cycle; expressed in terms of seconds

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Unit

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expressed in seconds or milliseconds; very short amount of time

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Frequency

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(Hz) is unit of measure; Rate of vibration of an object; # of cycles or oscillations per unit time (1 sec) when it is set into vibration. F= 1/P P= 1/F (P)(F)=1

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Pitch

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(Mel) is unit of measure; How frequency is perceived; subjective because it is based on each person's perception; There's a strong positive relationship b/w Pitch and Frequency: The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch! As frequency decreases, pitch also decreases! This is a GOOD relationship, but not a linear (1-1) relationship! It's not a perfect relationship b/c every time you double or triple frequency, the pitch will not necessarily double or triple. It's not Proportionate!! 1000 mels = 1000 Hz @ 40 dB

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Length

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length of tines on tuning fork affect Frequency; Inversely related/ proportional to Frequency; if object is longer, then lower frequency. If object is shorter, then higher frequency!

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Mass

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mass/ weight also affects frequency inversely! The greater the mass (thicker the object), the lower the frequency! -In males, vocal folds are thicker (their mass), longer, and less tense which results in lower frequency sounds!

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Tension

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stiffness of the object is directly related to frequency!

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Speech Sounds

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Fricatives & Affricates= higher pitch speech sounds Vowels, Liquids, Glides= Lower pitch speech sounds Stops= Mid pitch speech sounds Audible Frequency Range= (250-4000 Hz) Speech Sound Range= (75-8000 Hz) Lowest Freq. person w/ Normal Hearing can hear= (20- 20,000 Hz) -Some birds and animals can hear "subsonic" sound levels below 20 Hz (elephants) and "suprasonic" sound levels above 20,000 Hz. (bats)

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Amplitude

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Measurement of particle displacement from point of rest to point of maximum displacement; PRESSURE CONCEPT!! Force and Amplitude are related. The greater the Force, the greater the Amplitude and the Louder the sound will be! Amplitude and Loudness are also related!

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Dampening

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Sound fades out or gets lost

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Velocity

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Speed=D/T; Speed at which sound waves travel; sound waves travel much slower than light comparitively; -Speed of sound depends of mediums; Velocity of sound is fastest is Metal (solid mediums) and almost 3 X's greater than in liquid medium! Speed of Sound is Slowest in liquid or gas!--> 750 miles/hr; 344 meters/sec; 1130 ft/sec @ 68°F/ 20°C; Speed of sound travels about this quickly but differs bc of temperature; These speeds are @ sea level! -Speed of sound is faster @ sea level and slower @ higher altitude; humidity also allows velocity of sound to be greater! - All sound frequencies travel at the same Velocity! Velocity is constant and remains the same!

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Wavelength

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Distance traveled in 1 cycle of vibration of a wave; Must be EXACT points on successive cycles/ corresponding points on cycles. Represented w/ " ƛ "; Unit of measure is (ft).

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Wavelength and Frequency Relationship

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As Frequency increases, wavelengths are shorter and shorter; As Frequency decreases, wavelengths get longer and longer. -Higher Frequency= shorter wavelengths and shorter periods -Lower Frequency= longer wavelengths and longer periods ƛ =V/F F=V / ƛ (F)(ƛ)=V ƛ =(V)(P) or P=ƛ /V

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If you multiply the frequency times the period, what do you get?

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ONE!

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Oscilloscope

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the instrument used to measure waveform

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Frequency counter

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gives a digital display of thePu frequency; Used for calibration purposes on audiometers.

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What are some of the fields that contribute to speech science?

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audiologist, acoustic physics, medical sciences, psychology, speech pathology, engineering, education, anatomy and physiology, linguists and phonetics, research methods and statistics

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What is the major difference between speech science and speech language pathology?

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Speech science need not be clinical, SLP is clinical

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What field deals with swallowing and pragmatic issues?

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Speech Language Pathology

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What are the two dimensions of wave form?

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amplitude and time

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Explain mass, length, and tension for a male and a female voice

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Male = Lower frequency; thicker vocal folds; longer; less tense Female = opposite of male

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Rarefaction

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Area of negative pressure; separated; back to orginal state; low pressure state

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Pure Tones

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AKA "Simple Sounds" or sounds that are "One single Frequency"; Tuning forks produce these types of sounds; Pure tones also used in hearing tests and on phone keys.

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Complex Sounds 1. Periodic 2. Aperiodic

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Sound with 2 or more frequencies; the mixture of two or more pure tones; The majority of sounds we hear in the world are Complex. (2) Types: 1. Periodic 2. Aperiodic

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(Complex Sounds) 1. Periodic

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wave in which each cycle takes the same amount of time to occur; pleasing to the ear (musical); wave forms are regular and systematic;

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(Complex Sounds) 2. Aperiodic

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wave in which cycles do not take the same amount of time to occur; sounds rough/difficult to listen to; examples = car crash, stomping feet, explosion; waveform may/may not repeat, and are IRREGULAR!!

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What speech sounds are complex periodic?

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vowels, dipthongs, nasals, and liquids/glides

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Which speech sounds are complex aperiodic?

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voiceless fricatives, voiceless affricates, voiceless plosives, and glottal

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Which speech sounds are both complex periodic and aperiodic?

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all voiced consonants; voiced fricatives, voiced affricates, and voiced plosives

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Transient ?

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lasts for a short time; (2-2-11)

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Continuous Speech Sounds?

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Fricatives!

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Fourier Analysis

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Mathematical procedure to identify the individual Sinusoids in a complex sound; Breakdown of a compl ex periodic sound into simple components in terms of: 1. Frequency 2. Amplitude (relative) 3. Phase Relationship

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What analysis is used only for complex periodic sounds?

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Fourier Analysis!!

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Phase relationship

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Timing relationship between sounds;

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Constructive Interference

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Waves that are IN PHASE--> Sounds add up which increases intensity causing sound to be louder; Waves that combine and increase the amplitude of the resulting wave

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Destructive Interference

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Waves that are OUT of PHASE--> (esp after 180°), they will cancel out or loose their sound; Waves that combine and decrease the amplitude of the resulting wave. -If person hears all frequencies and then has problems @ 6,000 Hz and 8,000 Hz, it may be because the frequencies are canceling each other out--> Result of Phase Relationship!

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Fundamental Frequency

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Lowest frequency in a complex periodic sound; this frequency usually has the highest amplitude (Fo)

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Range of Fundamental frequencies (Fo)

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Men: 85-150 Hz Women: 175-250 Hz Children: > 300 Hz

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Frequency Perturbation

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AKA "Jitter";cycle to cycle variability in frequency of vocal fold vibration; Fluctuation/variation in fundamental frequency (Fo); Normal Range is less that 1.5%; If greater than 1.5%= Clinically Abnormal

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Harmonics

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aka: Overtones (one in the same) whole number multiples of the Fundamental Frequency; the more harmonics a sound has, the easier it becomes to detect their sound; H1 = Fo H2 = F1 **Important b/c the more harmonics a sound has, it becomes easier to detect/identify a sound, easier to differentiate between sounds, and the quality of sound is better.

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Intensity

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How hard an object vibrates; Energy carried by sound particles! POWER CONCEPT!!!! Total Sound energy per unit area -(dB) decibels is unit of measure! Developed by Graham Bell!!! -0 dB is softest level person w/ Normal hearing can hear; This is not Silence/no sound! - (-10, -5 dB) -->some people with sensitive hearing can hear this but most can not! -No one is totally incapable of hearing; even deaf population speak hypernasally b/c they can and want to hear themself to some degree. *Intensity= Amplitude² ; They are related but not same!

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What is perceptual concept of Intensity?

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Loudness; Subjective

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What is perceptual concept of Frequency?

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Pitch; Subjective

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Formula for Intensity

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intensity = amplitude squared

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How are Force, Intensity, and Loudness related?

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The greater the force, the greater the intensity, and the louder the sound you hear. (This relationship is NOT perfectly linear) However, Changes in Intensity WILL result in changes in Loudness!

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Loudness

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Perception of Intensity; Subjective; Unit is "Sone" -1 sone is the loudness of (tone) 1000 Hz @ 40 dB -Pitch for this would be 1000 mal -When Frequency changes, loudness changes! Relationship is not (1-1)

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Decibel

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dB; unit for intensit

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What does 0 dB mean?

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the softest sound/level an avg person with normal hearing can hear; used as a reference; below O dB - can't hear; above 0 dB can hear

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Sone

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unit for loudness 1 sone = 1000 Hz at 40 dB

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Sound Level Meter

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Instrument used for Intensity and Amplitude; The further you are away from sound source, the lower the Intensity will be and the closer you are to sound source, the higher intensity will be! (EX): use this @ football game

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Normal Conversation

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60 dB

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Noise

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(Physical Definition)- Complex sound consisting of numerous frequencies (periodic, aperiodic, combination of all sounds); all types of sounds (Psychological Definition)- Unpleasant/unwanted sounds perceived as noise b/c we do not enjoy it! -Amount of Noise depends on what you are measuring!

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Noise induced HL

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SNHL; High intensity noise levels can cause this; will start losing ability to hear high frequencies

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Conductive HL

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HL caused by problems in transmission of sound to inner ear; Dampens Hearing; filters sound; according to Dr. Arby, patient can actually hear better; Perception is better; Bone Conduction allows us to hear and perceive well!

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Tennitus

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Constant ringing in the ears; SNHL can lead to tennitus; -Low Frequency ambient noise is a treatment option for tinnitus!

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Vocal Abuse

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can be caused by screaming, shouting, speaking loudly over NOISE!! (Ex): Teachers, Cheerleader, coaches, etc.

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Health Problems

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Noise can lead to various health problems such as headaches, loss of sleep, loss of concentration, distraction, stress, irritability, fatigue, anxiety, etc.

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OSHA Noiselevel Guidelines

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Occupational Safety & Health Administration -provides guidelines for # of things esp in workers Should not exceed 85 dB - 8 hrs/day 90 dB- 4 hrs/day 95 dB- 2 hrs/day 100 dB - 1hr/day 105 dB - 1/2 hr/day(30 min) 110 dB - 1/4 hr/day (15 min)

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High Risk Workers

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hunters; commuters, musicians, construction workers, lawn service people, industrial workers, airline industry

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Dimensions of Waveform

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two dimensions; amplitude and time

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Dimensions of spectrum

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two dimensions: 1.frequency- horizontal axiz 2. amplitude- vertical axis

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Dimensions of spectrogram

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three dimensions: 1. frequency- vertically 2. intensity- shade of darkness; (more dark=more energy) 3. time- horizontally

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spectrograph

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instrument that produces a spectrogram

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spectrum analyzer

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instrument used for spectrum

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Propagation of Sound

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How sound waves are transmitted; How sound waves travel in given medium -Amplitude of sound waves decrease over time; Eventually sound waves dampen and we no longer hear sound; Distance is INVERSELY related to Sound!!!

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What are some possible outcomes for sound waves that are being transferred?

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Depending on the object, sound waves are 1. Sound waves will pass through (thin walls) 2. Absorbed, turning them into thermal or heat energy and then dissipating 3. Reflected, which prolongs sound = REVERBERATION!!

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Reverberation

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Multiple or continuous reflections that can prolong a sound; (Ex): Echo; Mountains prolong sound

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Reverberation Time

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Time needed for sound to decay to a value that is one millionth of it's original amplitude! (reducing it by 60 dB)

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Live Room

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Reverberation Time is greater, so Reflections last a longer time; meaning that the sound is going to last a long time; (EX): church, concert halls, etc.

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Dead Room

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Reverberation Time is shorter so there are hardly any reflections; sound waves die out immediately! (EX): recording studio, classroom, therapy rooms

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S/N Ratio

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Signal to background noise ratio

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ANSI

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American National Standards Institute; background standards for classroom state should not exceed 35 dB.

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+15 dB

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Preferred S/N ratio; in an ideal listening situation, the speech should be louder by 15 dB (which is why he uses his headset)

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Resonance

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When frequency of one sound source activates another sound source of same or similar frequency, an increase in amplitude will take place; thus you hear an increase in loudness. -Resonators do not necessarily need to be an object which is why he says "sound source". (2) Types Resonators: 1. Mechanical- any object not filled w/ air; Tuning fork, strings on instruments 2. Acoustic- Any object filled with air, Oral cavity, musical instruments, bell, vocal tract

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Vocal Tract

answer

Tubelike structure; tube is closed @ 1 end and opened at another; Closed @ end where vocal folds are found; Open @ end of "tube" where lips are found; Pharyngeal and oral cavities, and can include the nasal cavity; when vocal folds are set into vibration, multiple resonations can occur in vocal tract due to multiple frequencies; complex sound produced; change the size and shape of vocal tract and will change different resonances.

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resonant frequencies*

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R1, R2, R3 - The lowest are most important for speech; can perceive all sounds for American English; differentiating one speech sound from another speech sound

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Length of Vocal Tract

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Resonances occur @ higher frequencies if length of vocal tract is shorter; if longer, Resonances occur @ lower frequencies!! -this is why vocal quality of kids is perceived @ higher pitch than women and men! -Related to resonance frequency; talking about vocal folds to lips!

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three subsystems of A & P

answer

1. Respiratory system 2. Phonatory system 3. Articulatory system

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Respiration

answer

respiratory cycle; inhalation/exhalation = 2 phases structures: thorax, sternum, ribs, vertebral column, abdomen, lungs

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Thorax

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Anterior Boundary: Sternum Lateral Boundary: Ribs Posterior Boundary: Vertebral column -12 pairs of ribs; only 10 articulate with sternum; ribs and sternum are bone; point at which ribs and sternum articulate is made of cartilage which provides flexibility for thoracic cavity!

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Vertebral Column

answer

33 vertebrae; Categories of Vertebrate include (Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral, Cervical, & Coccygeal); vertebrae connected by cartilage and ligaments; **Function= Support respiratory system and thoracic cavity!!

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Abdomen

answer

Muscles of Exhalation!! Located in anterior and lateral wall of abdomen; IMP to exhale air!

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Lungs

answer

Encased within the rib cage/thoracic cage Right Lung: 3 lobes Left Lung: 2 lobes; (Smaller) composed of air cells, spongy elastic, tiny and millions of these cells; covered with PULMONARY PLEURA membrane - reduces friction between ribs and lungs; there's 1-1 correspondence b/w ribs and lungs; (when ribs expand, so do lungs. When ribs decompress, so do lungs).

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4 major muscles of inhalation

answer

1. diaphragm- Major Muscle of Inhalation!! 2. external intercostal muscle 3. pectoralis major 4. pectoralis minor

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Diaphragm

answer

Major muscle of Inhalation; Dome-like structure; comprised of muscles and tendons; lobes of lungs rest on diaphragm-->when diaphragm contracts and becomes flat, lungs expand superiorly/inferiorly in vertical direction increasing dimensions of lungs from top to bottom helping to take air in!

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External Intercostal Muscles

answer

"between the ribs"; outer layer; Function: contract like 1 sheet of muscle; extend ribs in a forward, upperward manner; ribcage expands anteriorly and posteriorly,so do lungs; lung volume increases; Inhalation

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Pectorallis Major

answer

paired; Very Large Muscle; extends from sternum to upper arm; when contracted, helps expand rib cage upward & outward manner (anterior-posterior), increasing lung volume; Inhalation!

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Pectorallis Minor

answer

paired; attached to ribs; and inserts into shoulder Function:lifts ribcage - upward and outward; ribcage ant/post; lungs ant/post; not as strong as pectoralis major; Inhalation!

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Ribs

answer

10 - attached to sternum and vertebral column 2 - floating; attached posterioly to vertebral column covered with costal pleura membrane - helps reduce friction between ribs and lungs

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Muscles of Exhalation

answer

1. Internal intercostals 2. Abdominal muscles: 2a. Rectus abdominus 2b. External oblique 2c. Internal oblique 2d. Transverse Abdominus

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Internal Intercostals

answer

located b/w ribs; run @ diff angle than External; when contracted, Internal Intercostals push in/compress rib cage, forcing air out! Lungs compress, reducing volume; Exhale!

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Abdominal Muscles

answer

located in Anterior & Lateral Wall; abdominals made up of (4) muscles: 1. Rectus abdominus 2. External oblique 3. Internal oblique 4. Transverse Abdominus

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(Abdominal Muscles) 1. Rectus Abdominus

answer

runs from sternum to lower abdominal; long and flat; when contracted, they pull down rib cage, reducing rib cage volume (down and in); This reduces air in lungs!

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(Abdominal Muscles) 2. External oblique

answer

outer layer of lateral wall running @ angle; when contracted, they pull rib cage down and in @ different angle reducing thoracic volume, helping to push air out!

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(Abdominal Muscles) 3. Internal oblique

answer

similar action; when contracted, they pull down rib cage, reducing lungs, and helping to exhale!

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(Abdominal Muscles) 4. Transverse Abdominus

answer

Comprise innermost layer of abdomen; run horizontally from rib cage to abdomen; when contracted, compress abdomen pushing it in causing diaphragm to push up-->this reduces lung volume from top to bottom (superior -inferior)

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Other factors affecting breathing cycle

answer

1. air pressure differential- (atmospheric principle) diff. in air pressure from outside to inside in lungs; When I inhale, there's greater air pressure in my lungs compared to in classroom; I now need to exhale (atmospheric principle) 2. force of gravity- one of many factors acting on rib cage pushing it downward when you inhale,but a contributing factor none the less. 3. elasticity of lungs- returning to the normal rest position of lungs helps to push air out!

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Quiet breathing

answer

AKA "Life Breathing" & "Vegetative Breathing"; Normal -Normal Rate of Breathing= 10-12 breaths /minute; muscles are Passive; Location of Quiet Breathing occurs through nose (in and out); Reflexive action!

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speech breathing

answer

Talking; more exhalation when speaking and inhalations become shorter; muscles are Active; Location of speech breathing occurs in the mouth (in and out); Voluntary Action requiring an effort!

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Time ratio - Quiet breathing

answer

inhalation 40% exhalation 60%

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Time Ratio - Speech Breathing

answer

inhalation 10% exhalation 90%

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Vital capacity

answer

amount of air that you can expel after you inhale; Normal conversation: 20 - 25% Speaking Loudly: 40%

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subglottal air pressure

answer

Pressure below the level of the vocal folds; Subglottal air pressure is HIGHER during speech breathing because Vocal folds must be set into vibration by air pressure.

question

Which type of breathing is reflexive and which is voluntary?

answer

A. quiet breathing- Reflexive B. speech breathing- Voluntary; must make an effort!

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