question

According to the text, social psychology is defined as the scientific study of how people

answer

think about, influence and relate to one another.

question

According to the text, social psychology is a(n) _____ science, and one that only began to emerge as a vibrant field after _____.

answer

young; World War II

question

Myers points out that our social behavior is shaped by

answer

other people, our attitudes and personality, and our biology.

question

Hastrof & Cantrol (1954) found that Princeton students identified twice as many Dartmouth violations as Dartmouth students did when each watched the game. This emphasizes

answer

humans' tendency to prejudge reality based on expectations.

question

Another name for the "I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon" is the

answer

hindsight bias.

question

The study of naturally occurring relationships among variables is referred to as

answer

correlational research.

question

In order to determine whether or not changing one variable (such as education) will produce changes in another (such as income), one needs to conduct _______ research.

answer

experimental

question

Variable X is correlated with Variable Y. Which of the following could explain this correlation?

answer

All of these are possible explanations. (Y causes X; A third variable causes or influences both X and Y; X causes Y. )

question

The habit of using how we imagine another person perceiving us, as a mirror for perceiving ourselves, is referred to as

answer

the looking-glass self.

question

You attend a self-help discussion group, where the leader is encouraging people to think of themselves as the writers, directors, and actors of their own lives. The group leader is hoping people will adopt a(n) _______ locus of control.

answer

internal

question

Dana was really shocked when her candidate was not elected. She had assumed that everyone felt as she did and supported her candidate's ideas. This is an example of the

answer

false consensus effect.

question

The extent to which we evaluate our abilities and opinions by comparing ourselves to others is called

answer

social comparison.

question

Assuming that everyone else is staring at the pimple on your chin is an example of the

answer

spotlight effect

question

You are more likely to be satisfied with your selection of soda, purchased from the vending machine, if you are presented with _______ options rather than if you are presented with _______ options.

answer

a few; many

question

Kitayama and Markus (2000) found that, for American students, happiness comes from feeling

answer

effective, superior and proud.

question

When we compare ourselves with others, most of us tend to

answer

see ourselves as better than the average person.

question

The self-reference effect refers to the tendency to quickly process and remember well the information that

answer

is relevant to our self-concepts.

question

You have tried to study for an exam with flashcards, with a friend, and with your notes - all to no avail. You begin to feel that you should give up, as whatever you do does not seem to help your exam scores. According to Myers, you may have symptoms of

answer

learned helplessness.

question

The theory that explains people's behavior by attributing it to internal dispositions or external situations is called

answer

attribution theory.

question

The tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences on other people's behavior is called the

answer

fundamental attribution error.

question

Despite reading numerous research studies that report the association of fast food consumption with heart disease and diabetes, Rachel continues to eat fast food and thinks that it is harmless. Rachel's thinking is an example of

answer

belief perseverance.

question

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs is called the

answer

overconfidence phenomenon.

question

When we are eager to seek information that verifies our beliefs but less inclined to seek evidence that might disprove our beliefs, the _______ has occurred.

answer

confirmation bias

question

Which of the following is a thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgments?

answer

a heuristic

question

The perception of a relationship where none actually exists, or the perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists, is called

answer

an illusory correlation.

question

A belief that leads to its own fulfillment is called

answer

a self-fulfilling prophecy.

question

"Emotional Contagion" can explain why you always feel _______ after being with a consistently upbeat friend.

answer

happy

question

Which theory predicts that when people experience a self-image threat, they will compensate by affirming another aspect of the self?

answer

self-affirmation theory

question

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later to a larger request is called the _______ phenomenon.

answer

foot-in-the-door

question

According to the overjustification effect, promising children a reward for doing what they already intrinsically enjoy will

answer

lead to less enjoyment of the activity .

question

Which theory assumes that we observe our actions for clues about our own attitudes and beliefs?

answer

self-perception

question

Which of the following is NOT one of the theories presented in the text as an explanation for why attitudes follow behavior?

answer

self-consistency theory

question

In 1969, social psychologist Allan Wicker completed a review of dozens of research studies and concluded that people's expressed attitudes _______ predicted their varying behaviors.

answer

hardly ever

question

According to research, which of the following methods would be the most productive way to change your behavior in some important way?

answer

perform the desired behavior

question

According to the text, what term best describes the relationship between biology and culture?

answer

interaction

question

The term gender role refers to

answer

a set of behavior expectations for males or females.

question

Consistent with evolutionary psychology's explanation of gender differences, Roney (2003) found that teen males reported _______ as most important if left alone in a room with a teen female.

answer

having lots of money

question

One dramatic finding from developmental psychology (Plomin & Daniles, 1987) is that two children in the same family are, on average,

answer

as different from one another as two children selected at random.

question

One of the most important similarities in humans is our capacity

answer

to learn and adapt.

question

The copycat suicide phenomenon is most likely to occur

answer

in places where the suicide story is publicized.

question

Milgram's studies explored _______; Asch's studies explored _______.

answer

obedience; conformity

question

A concern for _______ produces normative influence, while a concern for _______ produces informational influence.

answer

social image; being correct.

question

After President Bush announced his position regarding a possible war with Iraq, he was unlikely to change his mind. This most likely reflects the

answer

fact that public commitment reduces susceptibility to social influence.

question

High school students Aisha and Jared have been dating each other casually. When Aisha parents tell her to stop seeing Jared and ask her to go out with "nicer boys," Aisha announces that she and Jared are actually "in love" and have decided to go steady. Aisha's behavior most likely illustrates the effects of

answer

psychological reactance.

question

Abelson and his colleagues (1982) found that voting preferences in the United States could be reasonably predicted from voters

answer

emotional reactions to the candidates.

question

Kiesler (1971) recommended that one way to stimulate people's thinking so that they become more committed to their positions is to

answer

mildly attack their position.

question

The _____ route to persuasion occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness.

answer

peripheral

question

Werner and her colleagues (2002) conducted a study on aluminum can recycling at the University of Utah and found that the most effective message was a

answer

two-sided one.

question

When an initially discounted message becomes effective, a delayed impact of the message occurs. This is called the _______ effect.

answer

sleeper

question

Social Psychology

answer

The scientific study of how people thing about, influence, and relate to one another

question

Social Neuroscience

answer

An integration of biological and social perspectives that explores the neural and psychological bases of social and emotional behaviors. (p.9)

question

Culture

answer

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next (pp.160-168)

question

Hindsight Bias

answer

The tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one's ability to have foreseen how something turned out. Also known as the "I knew it all along" phenomenon. (pp.14-17)

question

Correlational Research

answer

The study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables (pp. 18-24)

question

Experimental Research

answer

Studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors (independent variables) while controlling others (holding them constant). (pp.19, 24-28, 30)

question

Field Research

answer

Research done in natural, real-life settings outside the laboratory (p.18)

question

Framing

answer

The way a question or an issue is posed; framing can influence people's decisions and expressed opinions (pp. 23-24)

question

Deception

answer

In research, an effect by which participants are misinformed or misled about the study's methods and purposes (pp. 27-28)

question

Demand Characteristics

answer

Cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected (p. 28)

question

Spotlight Effect

answer

The belief that others are paying more attention to one's appearance and behavior than they really are (pp. 35-38)

question

Illusion of Transparency

answer

The illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others (pp. 36-37)

question

Self-concept

answer

A person's answers to the question "Who am I?" (pp. 39-51)

question

Self-schema

answer

Beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information (p. 39)

question

Self-reference Effect

answer

The tendency to process efficiently and remember well information related to oneself (p. 51)

question

Possible Selves

answer

Images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future (pp. 39-40)

question

Social Comparison

answer

Evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others (pp. 40-41)

question

Individualism

answer

The concept of giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications (p. 42)

question

Collectivism

answer

Giving priority to the goals of one's groups (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly (p. 42-47)

question

Impact Bias

answer

Overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events (pp. 49-50)

question

Self-esteem

answer

A person's overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth (pp 52-56)

question

Self-efficacy

answer

A sense that one is competent and effective, distinguished from self-esteem, which is one's sense of self-worth. A bombardier might feel high self-efficacy and low self-esteems (pp. 57-58, 61-62)

question

Locus of Control

answer

The extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces. (pp 58-59)

question

Learned Helplessness

answer

The sense of hopelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events (pp 59-60)

question

Self-serving Bias

answer

The tendency to perceive oneself favorably (pp. 63-72)

question

Self-serving Attributions

answer

A form of self-serving bias; the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to other factors (pp 63-64)

question

Defensive Pessimism

answer

The adaptive value of anticipating problems and harnessing one's anxiety to motivate effective action (p 68)

question

False Consensus Effect

answer

The tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors (pp 68-69, 103)

question

False Uniqueness Effect

answer

The tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviors (p. 69)

question

Self-handicapping

answer

Protecting one's self-images with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure (p 73)

question

Self-presentation

answer

The act of expressing and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one's ideals (pp. 72-76)

question

Self-monitoring

answer

Being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performances to create the desired impression (pp 74-75)

question

Actual, ideal, and ought Selves

answer

Self-Discrepancy Theory was developed by Higgins (1987) in an attempt provide a conceptual basis for determining between feelings of dejection and feelings of agitation elicited by discrepancies in self beliefs. One of the facets of Self-Discrepancy Theory that distinguishes it from other theories on self-image is the manner in which it constructs the Self into three domains, each of which consist of two standpoints. Higgins' (1987) three domains include the actual self, the ought self, and the ideal self . The actual self is the representation of the set of attributes that you (or someone else) believe you actually possess (Higgins, 1987). The ought self is the representation of the set of attributes that you (or someone else) believe you should possess - as in a call to moral duty (Higgins, 1987). Lastly, the ideal self is the representation of the set of attributes that you (or someone else) believe you would possess, ideally (Higgins, 1987). The two standpoints on the Self are distinguished by the perspective of the person considering each of the three domains; Higgins (1987) refers to self-postulation as one's own standpoint, and to other postulation as a significant other's standpoint. This construct provides the basis from which discrepancies arise; that is, when certain domains of the Self are at odds with one another, people experience particular emotional affect.

question

Priming

answer

Activating particular associations in memory (pp 80-81, 88)

question

Belief Perseverance

answer

Persistence of one's initial conceptions, as when the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives (pp 84-85)

question

Overconfidence Phenomenon

answer

The tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs (pp. 90-94)

question

Confirmation Bias

answer

A tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions (pp 93-94)

question

Heuristics

answer

A thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgments (pp 94-97)

question

Representativeness heuristic

answer

The tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member (pp 94-95)

question

Availability Heuristic

answer

A cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace. (pp 95-97)

question

Counterfactual Thinking

answer

Imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't (pp 97-98)

question

Illusory correlation

answer

Perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists (pp 98-99)

question

Illusion of control

answer

Perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable than they are (pp 99-100)

question

Attribution Theory

answer

The theory of how people explain others' behavior - for example, by attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, and attitudes) or to eternal situations (pp 102-112)

question

Fundamental attribution error

answer

The tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others' behavior (also called correspondence bias, because we so often see behavior as corresponding to a disposition) (pp 105-112)

question

Self-awareness

answer

A self-conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. It makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions (pp 110, 129)

question

Self-fulfilling prophecy

answer

A belief that leads to its own fulfillment (pp 4, 113-117)

question

Behavioral confirmation

answer

A type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations (pp 116-117)

question

Attitude

answer

A favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone (often rooted in one's beliefs, and exhibited in one's feelings and intended behavior) (pp 8, 123-152)

question

Role

answer

A set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave (pp 40, 132-133)

question

Role playing

answer

In roleplaying, participants adopt and act out the role of characters, or parts, that may have personalities, motivations, and backgrounds different from their own. Roleplaying, also known as RP to some, is like being in an improvisational drama or free-form theater, in which the participants are the actors who are playing parts, and the audience. EXAMPLE: Zimbardo's Prison Study: Students played the roles of "guard" or "prisoner"

question

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

answer

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request (pp 134-136)

question

Low-ball technique

answer

A tactic for getting people to agree to something. People who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante. People who receive only the costly requests are less likely to comply with it. (p. 135)

question

Cognitive Dissonance

answer

Tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions. For example, dissonance may occur when we realize that we have, with little justification, acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons favoring another. (pp 141-145, 150-151)

question

Insufficient justification effect

answer

Reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is "insufficient" (pp 142-143, 148)

question

Self-perception theory

answer

The theory that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us, by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs. (pp 145-151)

question

Overjustification Effect

answer

The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing, they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing (p 148-151)

question

Stanford Prison Experiment

answer

The Stanford prison experiment was a study of the psychological effects of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. The experiment was conducted at Stanford University from August 14 to August 20 of 1971 by a team of researchers led by psychology professor Philip Zimbardo.[1] It was funded by the US Office of Naval Research[2] and was of interest to both the US Navy and Marine Corps as an investigation into the causes of conflict between military guards and prisoners.

question

Natural Selection

answer

The evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organism to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuring generations (p 159)

question

Evolutionary Psychology

answer

The study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principle of natural selection (p 159-160)

question

Culture

answer

The enduring behaviors, idea, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted form one generation to the next (pp 160-168)

question

Norms

answer

Standards for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior. (In a different sense of the word, norms also describe what most other do - what is normal) (pp 162-165)

question

Gender

answer

In psychology, the characteristic, whether biological or socially influenced, by which people define male and female (pp 168-185)

question

Empathy

answer

the vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in another's shoes (p 170)

question

Androgyny

answer

from "andro" (man) and "gyn" (woman) - thus mixing both masculine and feminine characteristics (p 181)

question

Gender role

answer

a set of behavior expectations (norms) for males and females (pp 181-185)

question

Gender stereotypes

answer

Gender stereotypes are culture-specific simplistic generalizations about gender differences and roles. Gender stereotyping can involve either positive or negative discrimination, but in both cases it has a harmful effect and reduces the individual to one-dimensional cliches. Stereotypes pave the way to sexism, the idea that one sex is superior to the other. They also create expectations for men and women which puts pressure and forces them to fit in with a schematic image. EG: Female gender stereotype = get married and have babies / Male gender stereotype = be the breadwinner/head of household.

question

Person x Situation debate

answer

The Person-situation debate in personality psychology refers to the controversy concerning whether the person or the situation is more influential in determining a person's behavior. Personality trait psychologists believe that people have consistent personalities that guide their behaviors across situations. Situationists, opponents of the trait approach, argue that people are not consistent enough from situation to situation to be characterized by broad personality traits. (REFER to: http://www.personalityresearch.org/courses/B15/notes/situation.html)

question

Conformity

answer

A change in behavior or belief as the result of real or imagined group pressure (pp 191-226)

question

Compliance

answer

Conformity that involved publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing (pp 192, 256)

question

Obedience

answer

Acting in accord with a direct order or command (p 195)

question

Acceptance

answer

Conformity that involves both acting and believe in accord with social pressure (p 192)

question

Asch's Conformity Studies

answer

During the 1950s, Solomon Asch conducted and published a series of laboratory experiments that demonstrated the degree to which an individual's own opinions are influenced by those of a majority group.Together, these experiments are recognized as the Asch conformity experiments. To Asch's surprise, 37 of the 50 subjects conformed themselves to the 'obviously erroneous' answers given by the other group members at least once, and 14 of them conformed on more than 6 of the 'staged' trials. When faced with a unanimous wrong answer by the other group members, the mean subject conformed on 4 of the 'staged' trials. Asch was disturbed by these results: "The tendency to conformity in our society is so strong that reasonably intelligent and well-meaning young people are willing to call white black. This is a matter of concern. It raises questions about our ways of education and about the values that guide our conduct." (REFERENCE: http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/psychology/social/asch_conformity.html)

question

Milgram's obedience Studies

answer

One of the most famous studies of obedience in psychology was carried out by Stanley Milgram (1963). Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University, conducted an experiment focusing on the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience. He examined justifications for acts of genocide offered by those accused at the World War II, Nuremberg War Criminal trials. Their defense often was based on "obedience" - that they were just following orders of their superiors. Electricity experiments REFERENCE: http://www.simplypsychology.org/milgram.html#sthash.HK6IOVY8.dpuf

question

What predicts conformity?

answer

-Group Size (3 to 5 is best for inducing conformity) -Unanimity (one dissenter breaks social power of group) -Cohesion -Status (higher status people are more influential) -Public response (conform more with public than private responses) -No prior commitment (more likely to stick to prior commitment)

question

Normative influence

answer

conformity based on a person's desire to fulfill others' expectations, often to gain acceptance (pp 216-217)

question

informational influence

answer

conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people (pp 216-217)

question

who conforms?

answer

-certain personalities -people from collectivist cultures -people in certain social roles

question

Reactance

answer

a motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom. Reactance arises when someone threatens or freedom of action (pp 222-223)

question

Optimal distinctiveness theory

answer

Optimal distinctiveness is a social psychological theory seeking to understand ingroup-outgroup differences. It asserts that individuals desire to attain an optimal balance of inclusion and distinctiveness within and between social groups and situations (Brewer, 2003). These two motives are in constant opposition with each other; when there is too much of one motive, the other must increase in order to counterbalance it and vice versa (Brewer, 1991). The theory of optimal distinctiveness was first proposed by Dr. Marilynn B. Brewer in 1991 and extensively reviewed in 2010 by Drs. Geoffrey J. Leonardelli, Cynthia L. Pickett, and Marilynn Brewer.

question

persuasion

answer

the process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors (pp 229-265)

question

central route to persuasion

answer

When we are motivated and able to pay attention, we take a logical, conscious thinking, central route to decision-making. This can lead to permanent change in our attitude as we adopt and elaborate upon the speaker's arguments. The central route to persuasion involves being persuaded by the arguments or the content of the message. For example, after hearing a political debate you may decide to vote for a candidate because you found the candidates views and arguments very convincing. (pp 232-234, 239)

question

peripheral route to persuasion

answer

In other cases, we take the peripheral route. Here we do not pay attention to persuasive arguments but are swayed instead by surface characteristics such as whether we like the speaker. In this case although we do change, it is only temporary (although it is to a state where we may be susceptible to further change). The peripheral route to persuasion involves being persuaded in a manner that is not based on the arguments or the message content. For example, after reading a political debate you may decide to vote for a candidate because you like the sound of the person's voice, or the person went to the same university as you did. The peripheral route can involve using superficial cues such as the attractiveness of the speaker. (pp 232-234, 239)

question

elaboration likelihood model

answer

The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion[1] is a dual process theory of how attitudes are formed and changed that was developed by Richard E. Petty and John Cacioppo in the early 1980s (see also attitude change). The model proposes an "elaboration continuum," which determines the extent to which arguments are processed and evaluated (high elaboration) versus peripheral cues such as source expertise or attractiveness (low elaboration) shape persuasion. The model is similar to the Heuristic-systematic model of information processing developed around the same time by Shelly Chaiken. To effect longer-term changes in attitude, use the central route. For simple compliance, use the peripheral route. If you have their attention, be logical and present a compelling argument. If, however, they are not really paying attention to you (and you can deliberately distract them), put them in a good mood (eg. with a joke) then use subtle cues such as attractive clothes and leading statement. Then quickly lead them one more step at a time to where you want them to be.

question

sleeper effect

answer

a delayed impact of a message that occurs when an intiially discounted message becomes effective, as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it. (p 235)

question

important points from persuasion elements

answer

The primary ingredients of persuasion explored by social psychologists, along with the important points of each, are as follows: The communicator -Credibility: people who are perceived as experts and as trustworthy are more persuasive -Attractiveness and Liking: a physically appealing communicator is more persuasive; a communicator similar to you is more persuasive for subjective concerns; a communicator dissimilar to you is more persuasive for objective concerns The message -Reason vs. Emotion: which tactic is more persuasive depends on your audience; messages associated with good feelings are more persuasive; fear-arousing message are most persuasive when accompanied by a perceived solution -Discrepancy: to be most persuasive...if you are a credible authority figure with an unconcerned audience, advocate a highly discrepant view; if not, advocate a more moderate view -One-sided vs. two-sided appeals: if your audience will be exposed to opposing arguments anyway, offer a two-sided appeal -Primacy vs. Recency Effects: people will be more influenced by a message they hear first, unless - enough time separates the messages and the audience commits itself soon after the second message How the message is communicated -Mere repetition makes the message more believable -For passive messages, persuasion decreases as the significance and familiarity of the issue increases -Personal messages are often more persuasive than media messages -The more lifelike a media message, the more persuasive (e.g., televised messages are more influential than magazine messages) The audience -Younger people are more impressionable than are older people -People forewarned about a persuasive message are less likely to change their original belief -If they are thinking hard about the message, then strong messages are more persuasive and weak messages are less persuasive

question

primacy effect

answer

other things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence (p 245)

question

recency effect

answer

information presented last sometimes has the most influence. recency effects are less common than primacy effects (pp 245-246)

question

need for cognition

answer

the motivation to think and analyze. Asses by agreement with items such as "the notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me" and disagreement with items such as "I only think as hard as i have to" (p 252)

question

cult

answer

Also called "new religious movement": a group typically characterized by (1) a distinctive ritual and beliefs related to its devotion to a god or a person, (2) isolation from the surrounding "evil" culture, and (3) a charismatic leader. (A sect, by contrast, is a spinoff from a major religion) (pp 254-259)

question

attitude innoculation

answer

exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come they will have refutations available (pp 260-264)

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