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Hindsight Bias

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The tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one's ability to have foreseen how something turned out. (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) ex. the outcome of an election

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Hypothesis

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A testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events

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Correlational research

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The study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables

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Experimental Research

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Studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors while controlling others

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Random Sampling

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Survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion

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Framing

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The way a question or an issue is posed; Can influence people's decisions and expressed opinions

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Independent Variable

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The experimental factor that a researcher manipulates

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Dependent Variable

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The variable being measured, so called because it may depend on manipulations of the other variable

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Random Assignment

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The process of assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition.

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Mundane Realism

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Degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations.

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Experimental Realism

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Degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves participants

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Demand characteristics

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Cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected.

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Spotlight Effect

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The belief that others are paying more attention to our appearance and behavior than they really are

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Illusion of Transparency

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The illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others.

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Self-schema

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Beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information

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Possible selves

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Images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future

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Social Comparison

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Evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others.

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Individualism

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The concept of giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.

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Independent self

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Construing one's identity as an autonomous self

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Collectivism

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Giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly

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Interdependent Self

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Construing one's identity in relation to others

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Planning fallacy

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The tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task

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Impact Bias

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Overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events

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Dual attitude system

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Differing implicit and explicit attitudes toward the same object. Verbalized explicit attitudes may change with education and persuasion; implicit attitudes change slowly, with practice that forms new habit.

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Self-esteem

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A person's overall self evaluation or sense of self-worth

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Terror management theory

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Proposes that people exhibit self-protective emotional and cognitive responses when confronted with reminders of their mortality.

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Self-efficiency

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A sense that one is competent and effective, distinguished from self-esteem, which is one's sense of self-worth.

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Locus of control

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The extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces

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Learned helplessness

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The sense of hopelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events

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Self-serving bias

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The tendency to perceive oneself favorably

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Self-serving attributions

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A form of self-serving bias; the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to other factors

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False consensus effect

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The tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors.

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False uniqueness effect

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Tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviors

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Self-handicapping

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Protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure

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Self-monitoring

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Being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desire impression

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self-presentation

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The act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one's ideals.

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Priming

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Activating particular associations in memory

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Embodied cognition

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Mutual influence of bodily sensations on cognitive preferences and social judgements

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Belief perseverance

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Persistence of one's initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives

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misinformation effect

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Incorporating "misinformation" into one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event, and receiving misleading information about it.

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Controlled processing

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"Explicit" thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious.

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Automatic Processing

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"Implicit" thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness; roughly corresponds to "intuition."

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Overconfidence Phenomenon

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Tendency to be more confident that correct---to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs.

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Confirmation bias

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Tendency to search for info that confirms one's preconceptions

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Heuristic

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A thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgements

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Representativeness Heuristic

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Tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling a typical member.

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Availability heuristic

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Cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace.

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Counterfactual thinking

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Imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't.

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Illusory correlation

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Perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship that actually exists

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Illusion of control

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Perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable than they are.

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Regression toward the average

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Statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average

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Misattribution

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Mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong sources.

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Attribution theory

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The theory of how people explain others' behavior---for example, by attributing it either to internal dispositions or to external situations

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dispositional attribution

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Attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits

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Situational attribution

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Attributing behavior to the environment

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Spontaneous trait inference

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Effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone's behavior.

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Fundamental Attribution Error

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Tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others' behavior.

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Conclusion to Princeton Dartmouth football game

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There is an objective reality out there, but we always view it through the lens of our own beliefs and values

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Correlation and Causation

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When two variables correlate, and combination of three explanations is possible. Either one may cause the other, or both may be affected by an underlying third factor.

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when we experience an increase in affluence we

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compare upward

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when facing competition we often protect our self concept by perceiving what about our competitors

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they are advantaged

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people feel freer to share positive feedback versus negative this can cause

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overestimation the appraisal of our self image

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most cultures in Asia, Africa, Central and South America place greater value on

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collectivism

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Western Countries place greater value on

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individualism

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schema

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mental templates by which we organize our worlds

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Is it true that others have a more accurate prediction of our behavior vs self

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true

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immune neglect

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the human tendency to underestimate the speed and the strength of the "psychological immune system" which enables emotional recovery and resilience after bad things happen

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people that break by blaming themselves for giving up have

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low self esteem

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people that usually react to a self esteem threat by blaming someone else or trying harder

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high self esteem

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we use downward social comparisons to

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make us feel good

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we use upward social comparisons to

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help us identify as a part of a better group, inspire or challenge us

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western cultures are taught to

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express themselves

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eastern cultures are taught to

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focus more on tradition and shared practices

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western cultures make______ comparisons

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downward

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eastern cultures make_______ comparisons

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upward

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who has the more stable self concept collectivists or individualists

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individualist

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individualists' happiness comes from

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feeling superior and proud

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collectivists happiness comes from

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feeling close to family and pleasing others

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better than average effect

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people tend to rate themselves and their immediate family as better than average

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unrealistic optimism

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feel that there is less risk for negative things to happen

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defensive pessimism

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using pessimism to prepare for negative outcomes

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impression management

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cautious effort to control impressions of ourselves with others

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can impression management lead to self handicapping

answer

yes

Social Psychology Myers 11th Edition Ch 1-3 – Flashcards

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