sdn AAMC Official Content List for the MCAT 2015 Psych/Soc Topics: 7A
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sensory neurons
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afferent neurons, transmit info from receptors to spinal cord and brain
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motor neurons
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efferent neurons, transmit motor info from brain and spinal cords to muscles and glands
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interneurons
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found between other neurons, most numerous. predominately in brain and spinal cord, deal with reflexive behavior
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reflex arcs
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neural circuits control reflexive behavior, step on nail, foot detects pain and pain signal transmitted by sensory neurons to spinal cord, then interneurons bypass brain and send signals to muscles of leg directly
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central nervous system (CNS)
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brain & spinal cord`
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peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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made up of nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord. i.e. 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves. connects cns to rest of body, subdivided into somatic and autonomic
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somatic nervous system
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consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles
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autonomic nervous system
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generally regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, glandular secretions, involuntary muscles assc with internal organs and glands
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ANS Subdivisions
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parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system
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parasympathetic
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conserve energy, resting/sleeping states, reduces heart rate/constrict bronchi, increase peristalsis/exocrine secretions, acetylcholine is NT responsible
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sympathetic
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activated by stress, inc. heart rate, blood to muscles of locomotion, inc. blood glucose, dec. digestion/peristalsis, dilate eyes, epinephrine release
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meninges
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brain covered with thick sheath of connective tissue, protect brain, keep it anchored with skull, resorb CSF.
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3 layers of meninges
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dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater
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dura mater
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outermost layer
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arachnoid mater
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middle layer
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pia mater
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innermost layer, closest to brain
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cerebrospinal fluid
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aqueous soln in which brain and spinal cord rest, produced by specialized cells that line ventricles (internal cavities) of brain
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three basic brain subdivisions
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hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
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brainstem
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hindbrain + midbrain, most primitive region of the brain
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limbic system
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group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory. aggression, fear, pleasure, and pain are related to limbic system
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cerebral cortex
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most recent evolutionary development of human brain, outer covering of cerebral hemispheres, associated with language processing to problem solving, impulse control, long term planning
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forebrain structures (5)
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cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic, thalamus, hypothalamus
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forebrain function (5 sections)
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complex perceptual, cog, behavioral processes/ movement/ emotion, memory/ sensory relay station/ hunger, thirst, emotion
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midbrain structures (2)
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inferior and superior colliculi
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midbrain function
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sensorimotor reflexes
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hindbrain structures (3)
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cerebellum, medulla oblongata, reticular formation
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hindbrain function (3)
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refined motor movements, vital functioning (breathing, digestion), arousal and alertness
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swellings of neural tube
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hindbrain (rhombencephalon) - metencephalon, myelencephalon; midbrain (mesencephalon); forebrain (prosencephalon) - telencephalon, diencephalon
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hindbrain (rhombencephalon)
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controls balance motor coordination, breathing, digestion, general arousal processes. vital functioning essentially vital functioning, divides to metencephalon (medulla oblongata) & myelencephalon (pons/cerebellum)
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medulla oblongata
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derived from metencephalon, lower brain structure responsible for regulating breathing, heart rate, BP
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pons
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derived from meyencephalon, contains sensory/motor pways between cortex and medulla, lies above medulla
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cerebellum
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derived from myencephalon, top of hindbrain, mushrooms out of back of pons, maintains posture and balance, coordinates body movements
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midbrain
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mesencephalon, receives sensory and motor info from rest of body, involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual (superior colliculus), auditory (inferior)
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forebrain
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prosencephalon, associated with complex perceptual cognitive behavioral processes, emotion, memory.
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telencephalon
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cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system arise
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diencephalon
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thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, pineal gland
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neuropsychology
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refers to study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brai
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methods used in study the brain
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1. brain lesions 2. stimulating certain parts of cortex and recording brain activity creating cortical maps 3. EEG 4. rCBF
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electroencephalogram (EEG)
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involves placing several electrodes on scalp, electrical activity generated by larger groups of neurons, broad patterns of electrical activity can be detected/recorded
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regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
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detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain
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thalamus
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important relay station for incoming sensory info all except smell. sorts and transmits sensory impulses to appropriate areas
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hypothalamus
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lateral and ventromedial, anterior (serves homeostatic fxns) key player in emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive behavior, sexual behavior, controls endocrine fxns and ANS, regulate metabolism, balance, temp, water balance, hunger/thirst. *** 4 F's: feeding, fighting, flighting (sexual) functioning
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lateral hypothalamus
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hunger center, detects when body needs food and fluids
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ventromedial hypothalamus
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satiety center, provides signals to stop eating
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anterior hypothalamus
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sexual behavior, sleep, body temp
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posterior pituitary
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axonal projections from hypothalamus and is site of release of ADH (vasopressin) and oxytocin
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pineal gland
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melatonin secretion for regulation of circadian rhythms; direct signals from retina for coordination with sunlight
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basal ganglia
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coordinate muscle movement as it receives info from cortex and relay this info via extrapyramidal motor system to brain and spinal cord, smooths movements/steady posture
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extrapyramidal motor system
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gathers info about body position and caries info to CNS
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Parkinson's disease
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parts of basal ganglia destroyed, jerky movements, uncontrolled resting tremors
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septal nuclei
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contain one of primary pleasure centers in the brain
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amygdala
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defensive/aggressive behaviors
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hippocampus
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vital role in learning and memory processes, communicates through fornix
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gyri & sulci
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bumps and folds respectively
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cerebral hemisphere
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cerebrum divided into two halves
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frontal lobe
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prefrontal lobe and motor cortex
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prefrontal lobe
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manages exec fxn by supervising and direction operations of other brain regions. supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long term planning, assc. area
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association area
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area that integrates input from diverse brain regions
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projection areas
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perform rudimentary or simple perceptual/motor tasks
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primary motor cortex
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located on precentral gyrus in front of central sulcus, initiates voluntary motor movement by sending neural signals down spinal cord toward muscles,
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broca's area
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part of frontal lobe, vitally important for speech production, found in only one hemisphere (left)
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parietal lobe
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located to rear of frontal lobe, central region assc with spatial processing and manipulation - makes it possible to orient oneself and other objects in three dimensional space
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somatosensory cortex
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located on postcentral gryus (behind central sulcus), involved in somatosensory info processing, this projection area is destination for all incoming sensory signals
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occipital lobes
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very rear of brain, contain visual cortex (striate cortex), learning/motor control
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temporal lobe
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auditory cortex, wernicke's area, memory processing, emotional, language
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auditory cortex
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primary site of most sound processing, including speech, music, sound info
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cerebral hemisphere laterality
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communicates contralaterally in some cases, neurons on left side of brain activate movements on right side of body or ipsilaterally (hearing)
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dominant hemisphere
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heavily stimulated during language reception and production, used to be based on handedness (right hand = left hemi dominant, etc), usually left, analytical function, well suited for managing details - lang, logic, complex voluntary movement, math skills, lang production (broca), language comprehension (wernickes)
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nondominant hemipshere
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intuition, faces, sense of direction/geometry, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing, simultaneously processes pieces of a stimulus and assembles them into holistic image, intreprets emotional tone of language
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influences on behavior (3)
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chemical, hereditary, environment
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acetylcholine
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neurotransmitter found in both central and peripheral nervous systems. in PNS - acetylcholine is used to transmit nerve impulses to muscles. (moving muscles) CNS - acetylcholine has been linked to attention and arounsal
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epinephrine, norepinephrine
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catecholamines, monoamines, biogenic amines, involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness, NE is local level NT, epi is secreted from adrenal medulla to act systemically as a hormone
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dopamine
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catecholamine, important role in movement and posture, found in basal ganglia/ too much = schizo
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serotonin
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monoamine, regulates mood, eating, sleeping, dreaming, depression and mania, too much - manic states
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GABA
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gamma-aminobutyric acid produces inhibitory post synaptic potentials and is though to play imp role stabilizing neural activity in the brain. cause hyperpolarization of post synaptic membrane
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peptide neurotransmitters
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neuromodulators, complicated chain of events in postsyn cell than that of regular NTs
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endorphins
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natural painkilles, peptide NTs,
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endocrine system
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uses hormones, slower than nervous bc hormones travel to their targets thru bloodstream
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hypophyseal portal system
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hypothalamus, pituitary gland, paracrine release of hormones
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pituitary gland
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master gland, located at base of brain, anterior and posterior parts
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anterior pituitary
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controlled by hypothalamus, master , releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands
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adrenal glands
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on top of kidneys, medulla and cortex
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adrenal medulla
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epi NE as part of sympathetic nervous system
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adrenal cortex
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corticosteroids - cortisol, testosterone, estrogen
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gonads
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sex glands of body, deal with libido, produce sex hormones
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innate behavior
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genetically programmed as result of evolution and is seen in individuals regardless of environment/experience
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learned behaviors
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not based on hereditary but instead on experience and environment
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adaptive value
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extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of species
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nature
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hereditary, influence of inherited characteristics on behavior
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nurture
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refers to influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior
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family studies
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rely on assumption that genetically related individuals are more similarly genotypically than unrelated ppl
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twin studies
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compare concordance rates for trait between monozygotic and dizygotic twins
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concordance rates
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likelihood that both twins exhibit same trait
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neurulation
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when ectoderm overlying notochord begins to furrow forming neural grove surrounded by 2 neural folds
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neural crest
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cells at leading edge of neural fold, migrate throughout body to form disparate tissues including dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes, calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid
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neural tube
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forms central nervous system from rest of furrow - alar and basal plate
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alar plate
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differentiates into sensory neurons of neural tube
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basal plate
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neural tube, differentiates into motor neurons
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umbilical cord
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fetus attached to uterine wall and placenta by this
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placenta
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transmits foods, o2, water to fetus while returning water and waste to mother
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primitive reflexes
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disappear with age
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rooting reflex
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automatic turning of head in direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek such as a nipple during feeding
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moro reflex
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react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms and then retracting and crying
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babinski reflex
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toes to spread apart automatically when sole of the foot is stimulated
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grasping reflex
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occurs when infant closes fingers around an object placed in hand
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gross motor skills
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incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion, sitting. crawling, walking
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fine motor skills
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involve smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes
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stranger anxiety
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fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals, dev 7 mo
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separation anxiety
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fear of being separated from parental figure, dev 1 yr
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parallel play
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children will play alongside each other without influencing each other's behavior
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age 1
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play style from solitary to onlooker, stranger/separation anxiety
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age 3
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awareness of gender identity, gender specific play, knows full name
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age 5
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conformity to peers/romantic feelings
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age 6-12
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friend circles are of same sex without romantic feelings
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teenagers
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self-sufficient more so, express desire for independence thru rebellion, cross gender friendships, aware of sexual orientation
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developmental milestones
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gross motor skills progress head to toe order, motor skills develop at core prior to extremities, social skills move from being parent oriented to self oriented to other, language becomes more complex and structured
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personality
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describe set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors which are characteristic of an individual across time and diff locations, how we act/react to the world around us
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theories of personality (4)
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psychoanalytic/dynamic, humanistic (phenomenological), type and trait, behaviorist
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psychoanalytic
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assumption of unconscious internal states motivate overt actions of individuals and determine personality
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sigmund freud model of personality
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id, ego, superego
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id
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consists of all basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce, functions according to pleasure principle
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pleasure principle
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aim is to achieve immediate gratification to releive any pent up tension
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primary process
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id's response to frustration: obtain satisfaction now, not later
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wish fulfillment
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mental imagery, daydreaming, fantasy that fulfills need for satisfaction
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ego
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organizer of mind, receives power from and can never be independent from id, operates according to reality principle, taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits activity of id and id's pleasure principle, meet demands of objective reality. responsible for moderating desires of superego
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reality principle
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postpone pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained
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secondary process
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guidance of reality principle
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superego
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refined and focused needs on ideal self, personality's perfectionist, judging actions/responding with pride at accomplishments and guilt at failures. conscience and ego-ideal
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conscience
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collecion of improper actions for which child is punished for
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ego-ideal
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consists of proper actions for which a child is rewarded
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conscious
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type of access to id, ego, superego, thoughts that we have access to right now
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preconscious
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type of access to id, ego, superego, thoughts we aren't currently aware of
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unconscious
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type of access to id, ego, superego, thoughts that have been repressed
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instinct
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innate psychological representation of biological need - life (eros) instincts, thanatos (death instincts)
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defense mechanisms
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ego's recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of id and superego. have 2 common characteristics: falsify/distort reality, operate unconsciously
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types of defense mechanisms (8)
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repression, suppression, regression, rxn formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, sublimation
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repression
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ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to unconscious, unconscious forgetting
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suppresion
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deliberate, conscious form of forgetting \"i'm not going to think about that right now\"
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regression
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reversion to earlier developmental state
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reaction formation
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suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites; man likes female celebrity but knows he'll never meet her expresses outward hatred to reduce stress of unrequited feelings
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projection
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defense mechanism by which individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others - i hate my parents turns into my parents hate me
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rorschach inkblot test
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relies on assumption that client projects his unconscious feelings onto the shape
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thematic apperception tests
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series of pictures presented to client and he's asked to make up a story about each one. story will elucidate client's unconscious thoughts and feelings
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rationalization
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justification of behaviors in manner that is acceptable to the self and society
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displacement
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describes transference of undesired urge from one person or objects to another
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sublimation
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transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behavior
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carl jung
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thought of libido as psychic energy in general, not just sexuality
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personal unconscious
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similar to freud's unconscious
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collective unconscious
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powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be residue of experiences of our early ancestors
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archetypes
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images of common experiences of ancestors with emotional element
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persona
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likened to a mask that we wear in public, part of our personality that we present to the world, adaptive to social interactions
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anima/animus
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feminine/masculine, describes sex inappropriate qualities. anima - surppressed female quality in males that explains emotional behavior (man's inner woman), animus (woman's inner man)
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shadow
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unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts and feelings and actions in our consciousness
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self
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intersection between collective and personal unconscious, and conscious mind, strives for unity
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mandala
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symbol of self for Jung
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three dichotomies of personality
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extraversion, introversion/sensing, intuiting/thinking, feeling
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inferiority complex
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individuals sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially
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creative self
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force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes personality
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style of life
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represents manifestation of creative self and describes person's unique way of achieving superiority (family enviro big factor)
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fictional finalism
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notion that an individual is motivated more by his expectation of future than past
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horney's postulation
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individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by one of ten neurotic needs, each of these needs is directed toward making life and interactions bearable
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basic anxiety
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vulnerability/helplessness
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basic hostility
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neglect and rejection, anger
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overcoming basic anxiety/hostility and attaining security (3)
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moving toward ppl to obtain goodwill of ppl who provide security; moving against people, fighting them to obtain obtain upper hand; withdrawing from people/moving away
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object relations theory
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object refers to representation of parents or caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy
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humanistic perspective
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focus on value of individuals and take a more person centered approach, describing ways healthy people strive toward self realization
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gestalt therapy
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which practitioners tend to take a holistic view of the self, seeing each individual as complete person instead of reducing him to behaviors/drives
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force field theory
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lewin, put very little stock on constraints on personalities such as fixed traits habits or structures such as id, ego, superego, field = one's current state of mind, simply sum of forces (influences) on individual
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peak experiences
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profound and deeply moving experiences in person's life that have lasting effect
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personal construct psychology
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individual is scientist, person devises and tests preditions about behavior of people in life
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client centered/person centered/nondirective therapy
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people have freedom to control their own behavior, not slaves to unconsious or subject to faulty learning
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unconditional positive regard
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therapuetic technique by which therapist accepts client completely with empathy
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type theorists
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attempt to create taxonomy of personality types
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trait theorists
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prefer to describe individual persoanlity as sum of person's characteristic behaviors, use clusters of behaviors to describe ppl
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somatotypes
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personality traits based on body type
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type a
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competitive compulsive behavior
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type b
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laid back/relaxed
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PEN model
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psychoticism, extraversion, neuroticism
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psychoticism
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measure of nonconformity/social deviance
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extraversion
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measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation
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neuroticism
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measure of emotinal arousal in stressful situations
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big 5
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OCEAN - openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
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cardinal traits
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traits around with person orhanizes her life
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central traits
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represent major characteristics of personality that are easy to infer like honesty/charisma
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secondary traits
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other personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence - come during small groups
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functional autonomy
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behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created behavior
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behaviorist
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operant conditioning, personality simply reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time
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token economics
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used in inpatient therapeutic settings, positive behavior is rewarded with tokens
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social cognitive
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how we interact with enviro not only how enviro influences behavior
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reciprocal determinism
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refers to idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, enviro all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation. best prediction of future behavior is past behavior in same situation
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biological
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personality explained as result of genetic experession in the brain
