Reading and Critiquing Research Articles – Flashcards
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What is the definition of abstract?
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a brief description of a study, usually located at the beginning of a report
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What is the definition of bias?
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any influence that distorts the results of a study and undermines validity
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What is the definition of blinding?
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the process of preventing those involved in a study (participants, intervention agents, or data collectors) from having information that could lead to a bias (knowledge of which treatment group a participant is in; also called masking)
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What is the definition of confounding variable?
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a variable that is extraneous to the research question and that confounds understanding of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables; can be controlled in the research design or through statistical procedures
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What is the definition of credibility?
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a criterion for evaluating integrity and quality in qualitative studies, referring to confidence in the truth of the data; analogous to internal validity in quantitative research
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What is the definition of critique?
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an objective assessment of a study's strengths and limitations
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What is the definition of findings?
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the results of the analysis of research data
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What is the definition of IMRAD format?
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the organization of a research report into four main sections: the Introduction, Method, Results, and Discussion sections
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What is the definition of inference?
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in research, a conclusion drawn from the study evidence, taking into account the methods used to generate that evidence
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What is the definition of journal article?
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a report appearing in professional journals such as Research in Nursing & Health
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What is the definition of level of significance?
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the risk of making a Type I error in a statistical analysis, established by the researcher beforehand (the .05 level)
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What is the definition of p value?
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in statistical testing, the probability that the obtained results are due to chance alone: the probability of a Type I error
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What is the definition of placebo?
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a sham or pseudointervention, often used as a control group condition
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What is the definition of randomness?
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an important concept in quantitative research, involving having certain features of the study established by chance rather than by design or personal preference
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What is the definition of reflexivity?
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in qualitative studies, critical self-reflection about one's own biases, preferences, and preconceptions
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What is the definition of reliability?
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the degree to which a measurement is free from measurement error--its accuracy and consistency
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What is the definition of research control?
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the process of holding constant confounding influences on the dependent variable (the outcome) under study
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What is the definition of scientific merit?
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the degree to which a study is methodologiclaly and conceptually sound
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What is the definition of statistical significance?
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a term indicating that the results from an analysis of sample data are unlikely to have been caused by chance, at a specified level of probability
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What is the definition of transferability?
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the extend to which qualitative findings can be transferred to other settings or groups; analogous to generalizability
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What is the definition of triangulation?
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the use of multiple methods to collect and interpret data about a phenomenon, so as to converge on an accurate representation of reality
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What is the definition of trustworthiness?
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the degree of confidence qualitative researchers have in their data and analyses, assessed using the criteria of credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability, and authenticity.
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What is the definition of validity?
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a quality criterion referring to the degree to which inferences made in a study are accurate and well-founded; in measurement, the degree to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure
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What are the major ways research studies are communicated to others?
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By conferences; presentations--oral reports and posters--visual display
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About what is the duration of a presentation?
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20 minutes total including time at the end of the presentation for questions
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What are advantages to communicating research studies via conferences?
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quicker dissemination (spreading of information) and the researcher and audience are able to dialogue and questions, concerns, or just to receive additional information
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What are some characteristics of a research report on a journal article?
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a brief summary, ten to twenty double spaced pages typed, and condensed information
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Where are nurses most likely to encounter research evidence?
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in journals or at professional conferences
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What can provide consumers with some assurance that journal articles have been critiqued by other nurse researchers?
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peer review
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In qualitative studies, what does the title normally include?
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the central phenomenon and group under investigation
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In quantitative studies, what does the title normally include?
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key variables and the population (PICO components)
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The abstract answers what types of questions?
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What were the research questions? What methods were used to address those questions? What were the findings? What are the implications for nursing practice?
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What can you read to judge whether you want to read the whole report or not?
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the abstract
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Nursing Research (the journal), suggests what headings following the abstract?
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Background, Objectives, Method, Results, and Conclusions
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What is a traditional abstract?
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a single paragraph summarizing the study's main features
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What is the purpose of the introduction to a research article?
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acquaints the reader with the research problem and context
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What does the introduction usually describe?
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the central phenomena, concepts, or variables under study; the study purpose and the research questions or hypotheses; a review of the related literature; the theoretical or conceptual framework; and the significance of and need for the study
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What sets the stage for presenting what the researcher did and what was learned?
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the introduction
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What immediately follows the abstract?
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the introduction
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What does the method section describe?
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the methods used to answer the research questions
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In a quantitative study, the method section usually describes what?
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the research design; the sampling plan; methods of measuring variables and collecting data; study procedures, including procedures to protect human rights; and data analysis methods
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In a qualitative study, the method section usually describes what?
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more information about the study setting and context; the researchers' efforts to enhance the integrity of the study
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What does the results section present?
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the findings; a narrative summary of key findings, often accompanied by more detailed tables
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Virtually all results sections contain what?
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basic descriptive information, including a description of the participants (average age, percent male and female)
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In quantitative studies, the results section also reports what information?
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the names of statistical tests used, the value of the calculated statistic, and the significance
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Statistical tests are based on what?
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common principles; you do not have to know that names of all statistical tests to comprehend the findings
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What does the value of the calculated statistic allow the researcher to do?
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reach conclusions about their hypotheses
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How do researchers typically organize findings in a qualitative report?
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according to the major themes, processes, or categories that were identified in the data.
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What is raw data?
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the actual words of participants
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What does the researcher present in the discussion section?
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conclusions about the meaning and implications of the findings (what the results mean, why things turned out the way they did, how the findings fit with other evidence, and how the results can be used in practice)
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The discussion section in both qualitative and quantitative studies include what elements?
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an interpretation of the results; clinical and research implications; study limitations and ramifications for the believability of the results
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What are four factors that make research articles so hard to read?
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compactness, jargon, objectivity (makes them seem impersonal and also in passive voice), and statistical information
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What is a goal of our textbook?
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to assist us in understanding the content of research reports and in overcoming anxieties about jargon and statistical information
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What is the first step in evaluating a research article?
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to comprehend it
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What are some hints on digesting research reports?
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grow accustomed to the style of research articles by reading them frequently; read from a report that has been photocopied so you can highlight or underline portions; read journal articles slowly, skim the article first then read the article more carefully the second time; become an active reader; use your textbook as a reference when you read articles; don't get scared away by statistical information; translate jargon into more familiar words
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What does a critical reading of a research article involve?
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a careful appraisal of the researcher's major conceptual and methodologic decisions
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What do critiques usually conclude with?
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the reviewer's summary of the study's merits, recommendations regarding the value of the evidence, and suggestions about improving the study or the report
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What are substantive issues?
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Was the research problem significant to nursing?
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What is a theoretical issue?
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Were the conceptual underpinnings sound?
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What is a methodologic decision?
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Were the methods rigorous, yielding believable evidence?
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What is interpretive?
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Did the researcher reach defensible conclusions?
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What are ethics?
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Were participants' rights protected?
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What is style?
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Is the report clear, grammatical, and well organized?
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What do peer reviews do?
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a comprehensive review to provide feedback to the researcher and to journal editors about the merit of both the study and the report, and typically offer suggestions for revisions
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What is the purpose of a thorough critique?
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to cultivate critical thinking and to induce student to apply newly acquired skills in research methods
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What is different about critiques designed to inform evidence-based nursing practice?
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they are seldom comprehensive; it focuses on whether the evidence is accurate, believable, and clinically relevant
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What are some critiquing questions regarding the Method in a quantitative report?
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Was the most rigorous possible design used, given the purpose of the research? Were appropriate comparisons made to enhance interpretability of the findings? Was the number of data collection points appropriate? Did the design minimize biases and threats to the internal, construct, and external validity of the study?
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What are some critiquing questions regarding Population and Sample in a quantitative report?
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Was the population identified and described? Was the sample described in sufficient detail? Was the best possible sampling design used to enhance the sample's representativeness? Were sample biases minimized? Was the sample size adequate?
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What are some critiquing questions regarding Data Collection and Measurement in a quantitative report?
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Were key variables operationalized using the best possible method? Are the specific instruments adequately described and were they good choices, given the study purpose and study population? Does the report provide evidence that the data collection methods yielded data that were high on reliability and validity?
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What are some critiquing questions regarding Procedures?
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If there was an intervention, is it adequately described, and was it properly implemented? Did most participants allocated to the intervention group actually receive it? Was there evidence of intervention fidelity? Were data collected in a manner that minimized bias? Was the staff who collected data appropriately trained?
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What are some critiquing questions regarding Results and Data Analysis in a quantitative report?
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Were appropriate statistical methods used? Was the most powerful analytic method used? Were Type I and Type II errors avoided or minimized?
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What are some critiquing questions regarding Findings in a quantitative report?
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Was information about statistical significant presented? Was information about effect size and precision of estimates presented?
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What are some critiquing questions regarding Summary and Assessment in a quantitative report?
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Despite any limitations, do the study findings appear to be valid--do you have confidence in the truth value of the results? Does the study contribute any meaningful evidence that can be used in pursing practice or that is useful to the nursing discipline?
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What are some critiquing questions regarding Method in a qualitative report?
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Is the identified research tradition congruent with the methods used to collect and analyze data? Was an adequate amount of time spent in the field or with study participants? Was there evidence of reflexivity in the design?
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What are some critiquing questions regarding Sample and Setting in a qualitative report?
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Was the group or population of interest adequately described? Were the setting and sample described in sufficient detail? Was the best possible method of sampling used to enhance information richness and address the needs of the study? Was the sample size adequate? Was saturation achieved?
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What are some critiquing questions regarding Data Collection in a qualitative report?
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Were the methods of gathering data appropriate? Were data gathered through two or more methods to achieve triangulation? Did the researcher ask the right questions or make the right observations? Was there a sufficient amount of data? Were they of sufficient depth and richness?
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What are some critiquing questions regarding Procedures in a qualitative report?
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Do data collection and recording procedures appear appropriate? Were data collected in a manner that minimized bias? Were the people who collected data appropriately trained?
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What are some critiquing questions regarding Enhancement of trustworthiness in a qualitative report?
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Did the researchers use strategies to enhance the truthworthiness/integrity of the study, and were those strategies adequate? Do the researchers' clinical, substantive, or methodologic qualifications and experience enhance confidence in the findings and their interpretation?
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What are some critiquing questions regarding Results and Data Analysis in a qualitative report?
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Was the data analysis strategy compatible with the research tradition and with the nature and type of data gathered? Did the analysis yield an appropriate "product"? Did the analytic procedures suggest the possibility of biases?
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What are some critiquing questions regarding Findings in a qualitative report?
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Were the findings effectively summarized, with good use of excerpts and supporting arguments? Do the themes adequately capture the meaning of the data? Does it appear that the researcher satisfactorily conceptualized the themes or patterns in the data? Did the analysis yield an insightful, provocative, authentic, and meaningful picture of the phenomenon under investigation?
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What are some critiquing questions regarding Summary Assessment in a qualitative report?
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Do the study findings appear to be trustworthy--do you have confidence in the truth value of the results? Does the study contribute any meaningful evidence that can be used in nursing practice or that is useful to the nursing discipline?
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When asking critiquing questions, the more yeses a study gets, the ________ is is likely to be.
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stronger
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Why is inference necessary?
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because researchers use proxies that "stand in" for things that are fundamentally of interest. For example, a sample of participants is a proxy for an entire population. A study site is a proxy for all relevant sites in which the phenomena of interest could unfold.
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What do researchers want their inferences to correspond to?
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the truth
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Research cannot contribute evidence to clinical practice if the findings are ?
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inaccurate, biased, or fail to represent the experiences of the target group
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What are two especially important criteria?
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reliability and validity
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Reliability is most often associated with ?
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the methods used to measure variables
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Validity is an important criterion for ?
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evaluating methods to measure variables
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What is a random bias?
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haphazard and affects only small segments of data
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What is an example of random bias?
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a few study participants might provide inaccurate information because they were tired at the time of data collection
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What is systematic bias?
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results when the bias is consistent or uniform
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What is an example of a systematic bias?
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if a spring scale consistently measure people's weight as being 2 pounds heavier than their true weight
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What does rigorous research methods aim to do?
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eliminate or minimize bias
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What do qualitative researchers consider to not be desirable tools for understanding phenomena?
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randomness or blinding
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What is a blind review?
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reviews do not know person who wrote study; person who wrote study does not know the reviewers
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Which is considered for prestigious, referred or non-referred journal?
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referred because they have a blind review process
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What are some examples of recommendations from reviewers?
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accept, reject, revise
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What percentage of reports are actually accepted for publication?
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as few as 5%
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An abstract in traditional narrative consists of?
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research questions, methods, findings, and implications
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About how many words makes up the title of the report?
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less than 15 words
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What will an introduction discuss?
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central phenomenon under study (concepts and variables), problem statement (significance or need), purpose, question, hypotheses (usually one or the other, not both), review literature (current knowledge, assess contribution), theoretical framework
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What components are involved in the methods section of a quantitative study?
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design, sample and population, data collection (operational definitions, instruments), procedures, and data analysis
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What components are involved in the methods section of a qualitative study?
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setting and context, sample, data collection procedures, integrity, data analysis process
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What components are in the Results section?
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descriptive information on subjects and summary of findings
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What components are in the Results section of a quantitative report?
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descriptive information on sample; descriptive information on variables; statistical tests used; calculated statistic value; significance or non-significance; level of significance
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What components are in the Results section of a qualitative report?
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themes, processes or categories; excerpts from raw data; may present an emerging theory if doing a grounded theory approach
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What components are in the Discussion section?
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Explain results, conclusions, meanings; interpretation results (practical, conceptual, theoretical); implications; study limitations
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APA
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in text citation, either Authors (date) or (Author, date); listed alphabetically in References
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AMA
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in text citation us superscript Arabic numeral; listed in order cited in References
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Objectivity in a quantitative report
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passive, neutral
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Objectivity in a qualitative report
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person, conversational
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What is the purpose of a critique?
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careful, critical appraisal of strengths and limitations of a study; they guide researchers and practitioners; they inform of ways results have been compromised; they determine better ways to address questions; they help practitioners decide if they can integrate it into practice
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What is substantive?
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significance, importance
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What is theoretical?
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sound underpinnings
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What is methodological?
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appropriate, rigorous, sound
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What is interpretive regarding aspects of a critique?
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proper interpretation of results, defensible inferences
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What is stylistic?
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clearly written, grammar, and organization
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What are some aspects of inference?
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conclusions drawn from study evidence; based on methods and findings/results; necessary because researchers use "proxies" vs. real world; must consider how close each aspect of study is to the real world
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What are some aspects of study merit--quality?
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want inferences to be true; judge the study design, data collected, and interpretation of the results
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Bias lead to ?
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error in inference
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Where does bias come from?
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participants reponses, researcher's preconceptions, and faulty data collection methods
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Is generalizability qualitative or quantitative?
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quantitative; depends on design issues and sample characteristics
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Is transferability qualitative or quantitative?
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qualitative; depends on amount of information given about sample and setting
