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organizational patterns

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topical, chronological, spatial, cause and effect (causal), and problem-solution

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organizing supporting material

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primacy, recency, specificity, complexity, or soft-hard evidence

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transition

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A verbal or nonverbal signal that a speaker has finished discussing one idea and is moving to another.

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verbal transition

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A word or phrase that indicates the relationship between to ideas

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nonverbal transition

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A facial expression, vocal cue, or physical movement that indicates that a speaker is moving from one idea to the next.

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summary

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A recap of what has been said

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final summary

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A restatement of the main ideas of a speech, occurring near the end of the speech.

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internal summary

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A restatement in the body of a speech of the ideas that have been developed so far.

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preview

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A statement of what is to come.

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initial preview

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A statement in the introduction of a speech of what the main ideas of the speech will be.

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internal preview

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A statement in the body of a speech that introduces and outlines ideas that will be developed as the speech progresses.

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types of signposts

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Initial previews, internal previews, verbal transitions, nonverbal transitions, final summaries, internal summaries.

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two types of outlines

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Preparation outline and speaking notes.

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Preparation outline

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A detailed outline of a speech that includes the central idea, main ideas, and supporting material; and that may also include the specific purpose, introduction, conclusion, and references. Allows speaker to examine speech for completeness, unity, coherence, and overall effectiveness. May serve as first rehearsal outline.

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Proper outlining techniques

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Use complete sentences, use standard outline form and numbering, Include your specific purpose, Include your full introduction and conclusion.

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Speaking notes

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A brief outline used when a speech is delivered. Include supporting material, signpost, and delivery cues.

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subdivision

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Use a Least Two Subdivision, if Any for Each Point. Logic dictates that you cannot divide anything into one part. If, for example, you have only one piece of supporting material, incorporate it into the subpoint, or main idea it supports. If you have only one subpoint, incorporate it into the main idea above it. Although there is no firm limit to the number of subpoints you may have, if you have more than five, you may want to place some of them under another point. An audience will remember you ideas more easily if they are divided into blocks of no more than five.

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five purposes of introduction

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Get the audience's attention, Give the audience a reason to listen, introduce the subject, establish your credibility, preview your main ideas.

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two purposes of conclusion

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to summarize your speech and to provide closure.

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oral vs. written

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Oral style is more personal, facilitating interaction between speaker and audience, less formal and more repetitive. Written style is less personal, with no immediate interaction between writer and reader, more formal, less repetitive.

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recognize various stylistic devices (figures of speech)

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metaphors, similes, and personification

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metaphor

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An implied comparison between two things or concepts

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simile

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a comparison between two things that uses the word like or as

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personification

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The attribution of human qualities to inanimate things or ideas.

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denotative (denotation)

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widely accepted definition, found in the dictionary. (The literal meaning of a word)

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connotative (connotation)

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The meaning listeners associate with a word, based on their experience.

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abstract

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General words, ideas or qualities.

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concrete

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Specific words, which appeals to the 5 senses

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four methods of delivery

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Manuscript speaking, Memorized speaking, Impromptu speaking, and Extemporaneous speaking.

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good vocal delivery

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volume, articulation, dialect, pronunciation, pitch, rate, pauses

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good physical delivery

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personal appearance

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rehearsal tips

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Finish drafting your speech outline at least two days before your speech performance, before you prepare the speaking notes you will use in front of you audience, rehearse your speech aloud, time your speech, prepare your speaking notes, rehearse your speech standing up, if you can present your speech to someone else so that you can practice establishing eye contact, if possible, make an audio or video recording of your speech during the rehearsal stage. Spend more time preparing and rehearsing, to earn a higher grade. Seek feedback, and self-critique video of your rehearsal.

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pronunciation

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the use of sounds to form words clearly and accurately.

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articulation

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the production of clear and distinct speech sounds.

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cognitive dissonance

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The sense of mental discomfort that prompts a person to change when new information conflict with previously organized thought patterns. Telling listeners about existing problems or information that is inconsistent with their currently held beliefs or known information creates psychological discomfort.

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attitude

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A learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably toward something; likes and dislikes.

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values

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An enduring concept of good and bad, right and wrong.

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beliefs

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A way we structure reality to accept something as true or false

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proposition of fact

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A proposition that focuses on whether something is true or false or whether it did or did not happen. A statement that focuses on whether something is true or false. Debatable propositions of fact can be good topics for persuasive speeches. Example: Undebatable: The state legislature has raise tuition 10% during the last three years. Debatable: There are more terrorist attacks in the world today than at any previous time in human history.

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proposition of value

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A proposition that calls for the listener to judge the worth or importance of something. A statement that either asserts that something is better than something else or presumes what is right and wrong or good and bad. Example: The electoral college is a better way to elect presidents than a direct popular vote would be. It is better to keep your financial records on a personal computer than to make calculation by hand.

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proposition of policy

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A proposition that calls for the listener to judge the worth or importance of something. A statement that advocates a change in policy or procedures. Example: Our community should adopt a curfew for all citizens under eighteen. All hand guns should be abolished.

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motivate listeners

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1) Use Cognitive Dissonance 2) Use Listeners' needs 3) Use Positive Motivation 4) Use Negative Motivation

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Use Cognitive Dissonance

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Telling listeners about existing problems or information that is inconsistent with their currently held beliefs or known information creates psychological discomfort. Example: Do you value your family's security? Then you're probably worried to learn that many of us would not be able to support our families if we were injured and couldn't work. You can restore your peace of mind by buying our disability insurance policy.

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Use Listeners' Needs

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People are motivated by unmet needs. The most basic needs are physiological, followed by safety needs, social needs, self-esteem needs, and finally, self-actualization needs. Example: You could be the envy of people you know if you purchase this sleek new sports car. You will be perceived as a person of high status in you community.

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Use Positive Motivation

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People will be more likely to change their thinking or pursue a particular course of action if they are convinced that good things will happen to them if they support what the speaker advocates. Example: You should take a course in public speaking because it will increase your prospects of getting a good job. Effective communication skills are the most sought after skills in today's workplace.

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Use Negative Motivation

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People seek to avoid pain and discomfort. They will be motivated to support what a speaker advocates if they are convinced that bad things will happen to them unless they do. Example: If there is a hurricane, tornado, earthquake, or other natural disaster, the electrical power may be out and you may not be able to fill you car with gas. Without the basics of food and water, you could die. You need to be prepared for a worst-case scenario by having an emergency stockpile of water, food, and gas for your car.

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three target audiences

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1) To persuade the receptive audience 2) To persuade the neutral audience 3) An unreceptive audience. (Receptive, Neutral, and unreceptive.)

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challenges for a receptive audience

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Identify with your Audience, Clearly State Your Speaking Objective, Tell your Audience Exactly What you Want them to do, Ask Listeners for an Immediate Show of Support, Use Emotional Appeals Effectively, Make it Easy for your Listeners to Act.

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Challenges for a Neutral Audience

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Capture your Listeners' Attention Early in your Speech, Refer To Beliefs That Many Listeners Share, Relate Your Topic Not Only to Your Listeners but also to Their Families, Friends, and Loved Ones. Be Realistic about What you Can Accomplish.

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Challenges for a Unreceptive Audience

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Don't Announce Immediately That you Plan to Change Their Minds. Begin Your Speech by Noting Areas of Agreement before You Discuss Areas of Disagreement. Don't Expect a Major Shift in Attitude from a Hostile Audience. Acknowledge the Opposing Points of View That Members of Your Audience May Hold. Establish your Credibility. Consider Making Understanding Rather Than Advocacy.

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4 part strategy for unreceptive audience

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1) Summarize the common misconceptions about the misconceptions about the ussue or idea you are discussing. 2) State why these misconceptions may seem reasonable. 3) Dismiss the misconceptions and provide evidence to support your point. 4) State the accurate information that you want you audience to remember.

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logos

answer

Literally, "the word"; the term Aristotle used to refer to Logic-the formal system of using rules to reach a conclusion.

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ethos

answer

A speakers credibility. The term Aristotle used to refer to a speaker's credibility. Ethic and Ethical.

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pathos

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The term used by Aristotle to refer to appeals to human emotion.

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myths of persuasion

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Can help you develop a common bond with audience members. Defined: A shared belief based on the underlying values, cultural heritage, and faith of a group of people.

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credibility

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Credibility is the audience's perception of a speaker's competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism.

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Elements of Credibility

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Competence, Trustworthiness, Dynamism 1) Competence: To be a competent speaker is to be considered informed, skilled, or knowledgeable about one's subject. 2) Trustworthiness: You earn trust by demonstrating that you have had experience dealing with the issues you talk about. 3) Dynamism or Energy. Dynamism is often projected through delivery. Charisma is a form of dynamism. A Charismatic person possesses charm, talent, magnetism, and other qualities that make the person attractive and energetic.

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Competence

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Competence: To be a competent speaker is to be considered informed, skilled, or knowledgeable about one's subject.

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trustworthiness

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Trustworthiness: You earn trust by demonstrating that you have had experience dealing with the issues you talk about.

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dynamism

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Dynamism or Energy: Dynamism is often projected through delivery. Charisma is a form of dynamism. A Charismatic person possesses charm, talent, magnetism, and other qualities that make the person attractive and energetic.

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Three (3) Phases of Your Credibility

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1) Initial 2) Derived 3) Terminal

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Initial credibility

answer

The first phase is called initial credibility. This is the impression of you credibility that your listeners have even before you speak. Giving careful thought to your appearance and establishing eye contact before you begin your talk will enhance both your confidence and your credibility. It is also wise to prepare a brief description of your credentials and accomplishments so that the person who introduces you can use it in hes or her introductory remarks. Even if you are not asked for a statement beforehand, be prepared with one.

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Derived credibility

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The second phase in the evolution of your credibility is called derived credibility. This is the perception the audience develops about you after they meet you an as they see you present yourself and your message. Establish common ground with your audience. Support your key arguments with evidence. Present a well-organized message. Deliver your message well.

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Terminal Credibility

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The last phase of credibility, called terminal credibility, or final credibility, is the perception of your credibility your listeners have when you finish your speech. The lasting impression you make on your audience is influence by how you were first perceived (initial credibility) and what you did as you presented your message (derived credibility). It is also influenced by your behavior as, and immediately after, you conclude your speech. For example, maintain eye contact with your audience as you deliver your speech conclusion.

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induction reasoning

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Reasoning that uses specific instances or examples to reach a general, probable conclusion.

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deduction, deductive reasoning

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Reasoning that moves from a general statement of principle to a specific, certain conclusion.

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cause, causal reasoning

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Reasoning in which the relationship between two or more events leads you to conclude that one or more of the events caused the others.

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Inductive Reasoning

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Reasoning BEGINS with... Specific examples Reasoning ENDS with...A general conclusion Conclusion of reasoning is that something is...Probable or Improbable Goal of reasoning is...To reach a general conclusion or discover something new. Example: When tough drug laws went into effect in Kansas City and St. Louis, drug traffic was reduced. Each city in the United States should therefore institute tougher drug laws because there will be a decrease in drug use.

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Deductive Reasoning

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Reasoning BEGINS with...A general statement Reasoning ENDS with...A specific conclusion Conclusion of reasoning is that something is True or False. Goal of Reasoning is To reach a specific conclusion by applying what is known. Example: Instituting tough drug laws in medium-sized communities results in diminished drug-related crime. San Marcos, Texas, is a medium-sized community. San Marcos should institute tough drug laws in order t o reduce drug-related crimes.

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Causal Reasoning

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Reasoning BEGINS with...Something known. Reasoning ENDS with...A speculation about something unknown occurring, based on what is known. Conclusion of reasoning is that something is...Likely or not likely. Goal of reasoning is...To link something know with something unknown. Example: Since the 70-mile-per-hour speed limit was reinstated, traffic deaths have increased. The increased highway speed has caused an increase in highway deaths.

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9 types of special occasion speaking

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Introductions, Toasts, Award presentations, Nominations, Acceptances, Keynote addresses, Commencement addresses, Commemorative addresses and tributes, and Eulogies.

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Reasoning by Analogy

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Reasoning by analogy is a special type of inductive reasoning. An analogy is a comparison. This form of inductive reason compares one thing, person, or process with another to predict how something will perform and respond. What questions should you use to check the validity of your conclusions? 1) Do the way in which the two things are alike outweigh the ways they are different? 2) Is the assertion true?

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How do you Develop Your Audience-Centered Persuasive Speech?

answer

Consider the audience: 1) Select ; Narrow Your Persuasive Topic 2) Determine Your Persuasive Purpose 3) Develop Your Central idea ; Main Ideas 4) Gather Supporting Material 5) Organize Your Persuasive Speech 6) Rehearse ; Deliver Your Speech.

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Get the audience's attention

answer

Use an illustration, a startling fact or statistic, a quotation, humor, a question, a reference to a historical event or to a recent event, a person reference, a reference to the occasion, or a reference to a preceding speech.

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Give the audience a reason to listen

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Tell you listeners how the topic directly affects them.

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Introduce the subject

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Present your central idea to you audience.

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Establish your credibility.

answer

Offer your credentials. Tell your listeners about your commitment to your topic.

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Preview your main ideas.

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Tell your audience what you are going to tell them.

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Proximity (supporting material)

answer

The degree to which the information affects your listeners directly. Just as proximity is important to supporting materials, it is also important to speech introductions. "This concerns me" is a powerful reason to listen.

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anecdote

answer

An illustration or story. An anecdote is the most inherently interesting type of supporting material, an illustration or anecdote can provide the basis for an effective speech introduction. In fact, if you have an especially compelling illustration that you had planned to use in the body of the speech, you might do well to use it in your introduction instead. A relevant and interesting anecdote will introduce your subject and almost invariably gain an audience's attention.

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signpost

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A signpost in your speech tells the listeners what to expect by enumerating the ideas or points that you plan to present.

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What helps organize the message and enhances listeners' learning?

answer

Identifying your main ideas.

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rhetorical question

answer

A question intended to provoke thought rather than elicit an answer. A thoughtful rhetorical question can prompt your listeners' mental participation in your introduction, getting their attention and giving them a reason to listen.

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Techniques for effective introductions

answer

Use an illustration or anecdote. Present startling facts or statistics. Share a quotation. Employ appropriate humor. Ask a rhetorical question. Refer to historical or recent events. Reveal something about yourself. Make note of the occasion. Acknowledge the speeches before yours.

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Closure

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The quality of a conclusioin that makes a speech "sound finished"

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Purposes of your speech conclusion

answer

Summarize the speech. Reemphasize the central idea in a memorable way. Restate the main ideas. Provide closure. Give verbal or nonverbal signals of the end of the speech. Motivate the audience to respond.

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Techniques for effective conclusions

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1) Use any of the techniques for an effective introduction. 2) Refer to the introduction of you speech. 3) Issue an inspirational appeal or a challenge.

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What are the 2 main purposes of the conclusion?

answer

1) To summarize your speech and to 2) provide closure. Verbal and nonverbal clues that the speech is ending will help to provide your audience with closure. You can also use the conclusion as an opportunity to suggest an action to you audience to motivate your audience to respond in some way to your message. Conclusions may take any one of the forms used for introductions. In addition, you can refer to the introduction or make inspirational appeals or challenges.

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Describe three (3) differences between oral and written language styles.

answer

1) Oral Stylr if more personal than written style. 2) AOral Style is less formal than written style. 3) Oral style is more repetitive than written style.

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List and explain three ways to use words effectively.

answer

1) Use Specific, Concrete Words - Specific, concrete nouns create memorable images. crickets, lion, my father. The concrete verb phrase; "gasping for breath", but it is not dead. 2) Use Simple Words 3) Us words Correctly- denotation of a word is its literal meaning, the definition you find in a dictionary. Example: the denotation of the notorious is "famous". Connotation-of a word is not usually found in a dictionary, but it consists of the meaning we associate with the word, based on our experiences. Notoriors connotes fame for some dire deed. Notoriors and famous are not really interchangeable. It is just as important to consider the connotations of the words you use as it is to consider the denotations.

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Discuss how to adapt your language style to diverse listeners.

answer

To communicate successfully with the diverse group of listeners who comprise your audience, make sure your language is understandable, appropriate, an unbiased.

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CRAFTING Memorable Word Structures. List and explain three types of memorable word structures.

answer

Imagery, Drama, and Cadence 1) Word Structures with Figuative IMAGERY. METAPHOR: Makes an implied comparison. SIMILE: Compares by using the word LIKE or AS. PERSONIFACATION: Attributes human qualities to inamimate things or ideas. 2) Word Structures with DRAMA. Short Sentence: Emphasizes and important idea by stating it in a few well-chosen words. OMISSION: Boils an idea down to its essence by leaving out understood words. INVERSION: Reverses the expected order of words and phrases. SUSPENSION: Places a key word at the end of a phrase or sentence. 3) Word STructures with CADENCE. REPETITION: Repeats a key word or phrase several times for emphasis. PARALLELISM: Uses the same grammatical pattern. ANTITHESIS: Uses parallel structures but opposing meanings in two parts of a sentence. ALLITERATION: Uses the same consonant sound twice or more in a phrase.

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ORAL VERSUS WRITTEN STYLE

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WRITTEN STYLE: Less personal, with no immediate interaction between writer and reader. More formal and less repetivtive. ORAL STYLE: More personal, facilitating interaction between speaker and audience. Less formal and More repetitive.

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Ladder of abstraction

answer

Semanticists use a continuum called a ladder of abstraction to model how something can be descibed in either concrete of abstract language. A "ladder of abstraction" is used by semanticists to show how a concept, idea, or THING can be described in either concerte or abstract terms.

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Denotation

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The literal meaning of a word

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Connotation

answer

The meaning listeners associate with a word, based on their experience.

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Concise

answer

Succinct or to the point

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Cliche'

answer

An overused expression

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How do you use your words effectively?

answer

To hold your audience's attention, keep your language specific and concrete. To keep your language simple, avoid a ling word when a short one will do. To use your language correctly, consider connotative as well as denotative meanings. To speak clearly, be as concise as possible.

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ethnic vernacular

answer

A variety of English that includes words and phrases use by a specific ethnic group

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regionalisms

answer

Words or phrases used uniquely by speakers in one part of a country.

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jargon

answer

The specialized language of a profession.

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Standard American English

answer

The English taught by schools and used in the media, business, and government in the U.S.

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How do you adapt your language style to diverse listeners?

answer

To communicate successfully with diverse listeners, use language your audience can understand. To avoid offending your audience, use appropriate language. To communicate sensitivity to diverse subgroups, use unbiased language.

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figure of speech

answer

Language that deviates from the ordenary, expected meaning of words to make a description or comparison unique, vivid, and memorable.

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Metahor

answer

An implied comparison between two things or comcepts.

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Simile

answer

A comparison between two things that uses the word LIKE or AS.

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Crisis rhetoric

answer

Language used by speakers during momentous or overwhelming times.

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Personification

answer

The attribution of human qualities to inanimate things or ideas.

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Omission

answer

Leaving out a word or phrase the listener expects to hear.

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Inversion

answer

reversing the mormal word order of a phrase or sentence.

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Suspension

answer

Withholding a key word or phrase until the end of a sentence.

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Cadence

answer

the rhythmm of language.

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Repetition

answer

Use of a word or phrase more htan once for emphasis.

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Parallelism

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Use of the same grammatical pattern for thwo or more phrases, clauses, or sentences.

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Antithesies

answer

Opposition, such as that used in parallel two-part sentences in which the second part contrasts in meaning with the first.

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Alliteration

answer

The repetition of a consonant sound (usually the first consonant) several times in a phrase, clause, or sentence.

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ANALYZING a MEMORABLE Word Structure: "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country."

answer

Techniques that create RHYTHM and Techniques that create DRAMA. 1) Techniques that Create RHYTHM -OMISSION, Example: "Ask not..." The subject, YOU, is not stated. -INVERSION, Example: "Ask not..." In casual every day conversation, we would say, "do not ask" rather than "ask not." The inversion makes the opening powerful and attention-getting. -SUSPENSION, Example: "...ask what you can do for your country." The key message, "ask what you can do for your country, " issuspended, or delayed, until the end of the sentence. If the sentence structure had been reversed, the impact would not have been as dramatic. 2) Techniques that create DRAMA -REPETITION, Example: "Ask not what your country can do for you: ask what your can do for your country." A form of the word you occurs four times in a sentence of 17 words, reflecting Kennedy's audieance-centerdness. -PARALLELISM, Example: "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you cando for your country." The two clauses us the same grammatical pattern (what+subject+verb phrase+prepositional phrase) -ANTITHESIS, Example: "Ask not...; ask..." The two clauses separated by the semicolon have contrasing meanings. -ALLITERATION, Example: "Ask...can...country." The alliterative K sound is repeated four times, at more or less even intervals in the sentence.

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Alliteration

answer

The repetition of a consonant sound )usually the first consonant) several times in a phrase, clause, or sentence.

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Differentiating oral and written language styles

answer

Oral language is more personal and less formal than writtine style. Speakers must also provide their audiences with more repetition than writers need to use.

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How do you use words effectively?

answer

Effective speakers use specific, concrete words to evoke clear mental images in their listeners. They also choose simple, respecful, unbiased words. As a speaker, be sure to use words correctly and to keep in mind the connotations of words, as well as their dictionary definitions (Denotations). And finally, eliminate unnessary words and phrases.

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How do you craft memorable word structures?

answer

You can creat arresting images through such figures of speech as metaphors, similes, and personification. You can create drama by using short sentences for important ideas, strategically omitting words, and structuring sentences with key words at the end to create suspense. Use repetition, alliteration, parallelism, and antithesis to crate memorable rhythm or cadence,

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nonverbal communication

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Communication other than written or spoken language that creates meaning.

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Nonverbal expectancy theory

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A communication theory that suggests that if listeners' expectations about how communication should be expressed are violated, listeners will feel less favorable toward the communicator of the message.

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emotional contagion theory

answer

A theory suggesting that people tend to "catch" the emotions of others.

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What is the power of speech delivery on Nonverbal communication?

answer

*creates a majority of the meaning of a speech. *disappoints audiences when it violates their expectations. *communicates almost all the emotion in a speech. *can help listeners "catch" the speakers feelings. *is often more believable than words.

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manuscript speaking

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Reading a speech from a written text.

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memorized speaking

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Delivering a speech word for word from memory without using notes.

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impromptu speaking

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Delivering a speech without advance preparation.

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extemporaneous speaking

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Speaking from a written or memorized speech outline without having memorized the exact wording of the speech.

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What are the 4 methods of delivery?

answer

Manuscript speaking, Memorized speaking, Impromptu speaking, and Extemporaneous speaking.

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Manuscript speaking

answer

Reading your speech from a prepared text. DISADVANTAGES: your speech is likely to sound as if it is being read, it takes comsiderable skill and practice to make the message sound interesting. ADVANTAGES: You can craft the message carefully, which is especially important if it is being presented to the media. The language can be beautifully refined, polished, and stylized.

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Memorized speaking

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Giving a speech from memory without using notes. DISADVANTAGES: you may forget your speech. You may sound overrehearsed and mechanical. ADVANTAGES: You can have direct eye contact with the audience. You can move around freely or use gestures while speaking, since you don't need notes.

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Impromptu speaking

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Delivering a speech without preparing in advance. DISADVANTAGES: It is challenging to organize your speech well and deliver it smoothly. Lack of advance preparation and research makes it more difficult to cite evidence and supporting material for the message. ADVANTAGES: You can easily adapt to how your audience is reacting to you and your message during the speech. The audience sees and hears an authentic speech that is spontaneously delivered without notes.

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Extemporaneous speaking

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Knowing the major ideas, which have been outlined, but not memorizing the exact wording. DISADVANTAGES: It takes time to prepare and extemporaneous speech. It takes skill to deliver the speech well. ADVANTAGES: Your speech is well organized and well researched. Your speech sounds spontaneous, yet appropriately polished.

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Functions of Gestures

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Gestures can lend strength to or detract from what you have to say by: 1) Repeating 2) Contradicting 3) Substituting 4) Complementing 5)Emphasizing 6) Regulating

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Characteristics of Effective Delivery

answer

*High level of eye contact with the entire audience. *Culturally appropriate, natural, nondistractin gestures. * Purposeful, nondistracting, immediacy-cueing movement. * Straight but natural stanking postudre, matching intensity of message. *Culturally appropriate facial expressions, matching message. * Audible volume, clear articulation, minimized dialect. *Varied vocal pitch and speaking rate. *Competent use of microphone. *Clean grooming and clothing appropriate to audience and situation.

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Audience Diversity aned Delivery

answer

* Avoid ethnocentrism; don't assume your listeners have a background and culture similar to yours. *Use more subtle nonverbals for high-context listeners. *Match immediacy behaviors and expression of emotion to culture. *Learn nonverval gesture codes andexpectations to avoid distracting your listeners with inappropriate gestures. *Seek advice from speakers experienced with the audience.

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Rehearsing your speech

answer

* Spend more time preparing and rehearsing, to earn a higher grade. * Finish your outline two days before you speak. * Rehearse aloud and time your speech before making speaking notes. * Make rehearsals as much like the real speech as possible. * Seek feedback, and self-critique video of your rehearsal.

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Delivering your speech

answer

*Get a good night's rest. * Eat carefully. * Arrive early. * Visualize success. * Reinforce your confidence with tips from Chapter 1.

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Responding to Questions

answer

* Prepare; ask the first question yourself. * Listen nonjudgmentally; repeat or rephrase questions. * Respond to the whole audience. * Bring off-topic questions back to your message. *Acknowledge emotions, keep to the issue, and avoid personal responses to hostile questions. * Admit it when you don't know the answer. * Keep answers brief and organized. * Warn audience when Q ; A is ending.

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What are the goals of Persuasion?

answer

1) Changing or Reinforcing Audience Attitudes 2) Changing or Reinforcing Audience Beliefs 3) Changing or Reinforcing Audience Values 4) Changing or Reinforcing Audience Behaviors

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How does Persuasion Work?

answer

1) By Aristotle's Traditional Approach: Using Ethos, Logos, and Pathos to Persuade. 2) By ELM's Contemporary Approach: Using a Direct or Indirect Path to persuade.

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How do you motivate Listeners?

answer

Use Cognitive Dissonance, Use Listener's Needs, Use Positive Motivation, Use Negative Motivation.

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How do you Develop Your Audience-Centered Persuasive Speech?

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1) Consider the Audience: Consider Audience Diversity and Remember your Ethical Responsibilities as a Persuader. 2) Select and Narrow your Persuasive Topic 3) Determine Your Persuasive Purpose: Social Judgment Theory suggests that when listener are confronted with a persuasive message, their responses fall into one of three categories: a. a latitude of acceptance, in which they generally agree with the speaker. b. a latitude of refection, in which they disagree with the speaker. c. a latitude of noncommitment, in which they are not yet committed either to agree or to disagree-they are not sure how to respond. 4) Develop Your Central Idea and Main Ideas: Proposition of Fact, Proposition of value, Proposition of Policy. 5) Gather Supporting Material. 6) Organize Your Persuasive Speech. 7) Rehearse and Deliver Your Speech.

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Persuasion

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The process of changing or reinforcing a listener's attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavior.

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Attitude

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A learned predisposition to respond favorable or unfavorably toward something; likes and dislikes.

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Belief

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A way we structure reality to accept something as true or false.

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Value

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An enduring concept of good and bad, right and wrong

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What are you affected by to successfully persuading your audience?

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Whether you choose to target listeners' attitudes, beliefs, or values.

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What is easiest to persuade an audience?

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Their Attitudes

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What is next easier to persuade and audience?

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Their Beliefs. Beliefs can be changed, but not as easily as attitudes.

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What is the hardest to persuade an audience?

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Their Values. Values are the most deeply ingrained and change the least frequently.

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Logos

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Literally, "the word"; the term Aristotle used to refer to logic-the formal system of using rules to reach a conclusion.

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Pathos

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The term used by Aristotle to refer to appeals to human emotion.

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motivation

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The internal force that drives people to achieve their goals.

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Elaboration Likelihood model (EML) of persuasion.

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The theory that people can be persuaded by logic, evidence, and reasoning, or through a more peripheral route that may depend on the credibility of the speaker, the sheer number of arguments presented, or emotional appeals.

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elaborate

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From the standpoint of the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion, to think about information, ideas, and issues related to the content of a message.

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Direct persuasion route

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Persuasion that occurs when audience members critically examine evidence and arguments.

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Indirect persuasion route

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Persuasion that occurs as a result of factors peripheral to a speaker's logic and argument, such as the speaker's charisma or emotional appeals.

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Self-actualization need

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The need to achieve one's highest potential.

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benefit

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A good result or something that crates a positive emotional response in the listener.

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feature

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A characteristic of something your are describing.

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Social Judgment Theory

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A theory that categorizes listener responses to a persuasive message according to the latitude of acceptance, the latitude of rejection, or the latitude of noncommitment.

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Proposition

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A statement that summarizes the ideas with which a speaker wants an audience to agree.

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Proposition of fact

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A proposition that focuses on whether something is true or false or whether it did or did not happen.

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Proposition of Value

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A proposition that calls for the listener to judge the worth or importance of something.

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Proposition of Policy

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A proposition that advocates a change in a policy, procedure, or behavior.

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Define Persuasion

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Persuasion attempts to change or reinforce the following: Attitudes: Likes and dislikes. Beliefs: Perceptions of what is true or false. Values: What you hold as right and wrong, good or bad. Behavior: What we do or don't do.

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What are two models of persuasion?

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1) Aristotle's Classical Approach 2) Elaboration Likelihood Model.

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What is Aristotle's Classical Approach?

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Ethos: The credibility of the speaker Logos: The logic used to reach a conclusion Pathos: The appeal to emotion

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What is Elaboration Likelihood Mode (ELM) Approach?

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DIRECT route- with elaboration; considering the facts, evidence, and logic of the message. INDIRECT route- without elaboration; relying on an intuitive feeling in response to peripheral aspects of the message.

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How do you motivate listeners to respond to you persuasive message?

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1) Use cognitive Dissonance 2) Use Listener's Needs 3) Use Positive Motivation 4)Use Negative Motivation

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Use Cognitive Dissonance: Telling listeners about existing problems or information that is inconsistent with their currently held beliefs or known information creates psychological discomfort.

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Example: Do you value your family's security? then you're probably worried to learn that many of us would not be able to support our families if we were injured and couldn't work. You can restore your peace of mind by buying our disability insurance policy.

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Use Listener's Needs: People are motivated by unmet needs. The most basic needs are physiological, followed by safety needs, social needs, self-esteem needs, and finally, self-actualization needs.

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Example: You could by the envy of people you know if you purchase this sleek new sports car. You will be perceived as a person of high status in your community.

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Use Negative Motivation: People seek to avoid pain and discomfort. They will be motivated to support what a speaker advocates if they are convinced that bad things will happen to them unless they do.

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Example: If there is a hurricane, tornado, earthquake, or other natural disaster, the electrical power may be out and you may not be able to fill our car with gas. Without the basics of food and water, you could die. You need to be prepared for a worst-case scenario by having an emergency stockpile of water, food, and gas for you car.

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How do you cope with Cognitive Dissonance when your message gives listeners conflicting thoughts, they might do what to you?

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* They might try to discredit you; you need to be competent and trustworthy. * They might reinterpret your message; you need to by sure it's clear. * They might seek other information; you need to make you information convincing. *They might stop listening; you need to make you message interesting. * They might be persuaded.

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Does effective public-service messages often use cognitive dissonance to change people's behaviors.

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Yes! Example: Zach's Dad wasn't the only victim of the Tobacco industry.

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What is Maslow's hierarchy?

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Physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, self-esteem needs, and lastly Self-actualization needs.

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How do you use fear appeals effectively?

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* When the fear appeal is directed toward loved ones. * When you have high credibility. * When the threat is perceived as real and may actually happen. * When the fear appeal is strongly supported by evidence. * when the fear appeal empowers listeners to act.

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What is the Social judgment theory?

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Latitude of Rejection, Latitude of Noncommitment and Latitude of Acceptance

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Persuasive propositions:

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For Developing you central Idea

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Proposition of fact: A statement that focuses on whether something is true or false. Debatable propositions of fact can be good topics for persuasive speeches.

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Example: UNDEBATABLE: The state legislature has raised tuition 10 percent during the last three year. DEBATABLE: There are more terrorist attacks in the world today than at any previous time in human history.

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Proposition of Value: A statement that either asserts that something is better than something else or presumes what is right and wrong or good and bad.

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Example: The electoral college is a better way to elect presidents than a direct popular vote would be. It is better to keep you financial records on a personal computer than to make calculation by hand.

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Proposition of Policy: A statement that advocates a change in policy or procedures.

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Example: Our community should adopt a curfew for all citizens under eighteen. All handguns should be abolished.

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How do you do Audience-Centered Persuasive Speaking?

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* Consider audience attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors. * consider audience diversity * Controversial issues make good persuasive topics. * Use social judgment theory to determine purpose. * State your central idea as a proposition of fact, value, or policy. * Find supporting materials that reinforce your credibility, logic, and emotional appeals. * Use clear organizational pattern * Get feedback as you rehearse. * Deliver your speech with appropriate emotion.

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What is a competent speaker?

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to be considered informed, skilled, or knowledgeable about one's subject.

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What are the phases of Credibility?

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Initial credibility, Derived Credibility, and Terminal credibility.

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What is trustworthiness?

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An aspect of a speaker's credibility that reflects whether the speaker is perceived as being believable and honest.

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What is dynamism?

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An aspect of a speaker's credibility that reflects whether the speaker is perceived as energetic.

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What is charisma?

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Characteristic of a talented, charming, attractive speaker.

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What is initial credibility?

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The impression of a speaker's credibility that listeners have before the speaker starts a speech.

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What is derived credibility?

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The perception of a speaker's credibility that is formed during a speech.

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What is terminal credibility?

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The final impression listeners have of a speaker's credibility after a speech concludes.

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How do you enhance your credibility?

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Initial Credibility: Carefully consider your appearance. Establish eye contact before speaking. Provide a summary of your credentials related to your topic. Derived Credibility: Establish common ground. Support arguments with evidence. Organize your speech wee. Deliver your speech well. Terminal Credibility: End with eye contact. Be prepared for questions.

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What are the 3 major ways to structure an argument to reach a logical conclusion?

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Inductively (including reasoning by analogy and reasoning by sign), deductively, and causally.

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Inductive Reasoning begins with...

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Specific examples

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Inductive Reasoning ends with...

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A general conclusion

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Inductive reasoning Conclusion of reasoning is that something is....

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Probable or improbable

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Inductive reasoning goal of reasoning is...

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To reach a general conclusion or discover something new.

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Inductive Reasoning Example

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When tougher drug laws went into effect in Kansas City and St. Louis, drug traffic was reduced. Each city in the United States should therefore institute tougher drug laws because there will be a drcrease in drug use.

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Deductive reasoning begins with...

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A general statement

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Deductive reasoning ends with...

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A specific conclusion

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Deductive Conclusion of reasoning is that something is...

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True or False

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Deductive Goal of reasoning is...

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To reach a specific conclusion by applying what is known.

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Deductive Reasoning Example

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Instituting tough drug laws in medium-sized communities results in diminished drug related crime. San Marcos, Texas, is a medium-sized community. San Marcos should institute tough drug laws in order to reduce drug-related crimes.

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Causal Reasoning begins with...

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Something known

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Causal Reasoning ends with...

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A speculation about something unknown occurring, based on what is known.

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Causal Conclusion of reasoning is that something is...

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Likely or not likely

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Causal Goal of reasoning is...

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To link something known with something unknown.

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Causal Reasoning Example

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Since the 70 mph speed limit was reinstated, traffic deaths have increased. the increased highway speed has caused an increase in highway deaths.

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Syllogism

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A three-part argument that consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion

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major premise

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A general statement that is the first element of a syllogism.

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minor premise

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A specific statement about an example that is linked to the major premise; the second element of a syllogism.

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conclusion

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The logical outcome of a deductive argument, which stems from the major premise and the minor premise.

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causal reasoning

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Reasoning in which the relationship between two or more events leads you to conclude that one or more of the events caused the others.

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fact

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Something that has been directly observed to be true or can be proven to be true by verifiable evidence.

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inference

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A conclusion based on available evidence or partial information.

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examples

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Illustrations used to dramatize or clarify a fact.

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reluctant testimony

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A statement by someone who has reversed his or her position on a given issue.

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What are the 4 types of effective evidence you can use?

answer

Facts, Examples, Opinions from experts, and statistics.

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What is the most effective evidence?

answer

Credible, New, Specific, Part of a story, Appropriate to you audience.

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fallacy

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False reasoning that occurs when someone attempts to persuade without adequate evidence or with arguments that are irrelevant or inappropriate.

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causal fallacy

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a faulty cause-and-effect connection between two things or events.

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bandwagon fallacy

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Reasoning that suggests that because everyone else believes something or is doing something, than it must be valid or correct.

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either/or fallacy

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The oversimplification of an issue into a choice between only two outcomes or possibilities.

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Hasty generalization

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A conclusion reached without adequate evidence.

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ad hominem

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An attack on irrelevant personal characteristics of the person who is proposing an idea, rather than on the idea itself.

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red herring

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Irrelevant facts or information used to distract someone from the issue under discussion.

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appeal to misplaced authority

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Use of the testimony of an expert in a given field to endorse an idea or product for which the expert does not have the appropriate credentials or expertise.

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Avoid these fallacies

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*Causal: Assuming a faulty cause-and -effect relationship *Bandwagon: Assuming that because others approve then the conclusion must be valid. *Either/Or: Oversimplifying options to either one thing or the other. *Hasty Generalization: Reaching a conclusion without adequate evidence. *Ad Hominum: Critiquing the person rather than the merit of the idea presented. *Red Herring: Using irrelevant information to distract from the real issue. *Appeal to Misplaced Authority: Using the non-expert testimony of someone who does not have appropriate credentials. *Non Sequitur: Using a conclusion that does not logically follow the information presented.

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Non sequitur

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Latin for "it does not follow"; an idea or conclusion that does not logically relate to or follow from the previous idea or conclusion.

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emotional response theory

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Human emotional responses can be classified as eliciting feeling of pleasure, arousal, or dominance.

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myth

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A shared belief based on the underlying values, cultural heritage, and faith of a group of people.

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What are some tips for using emotion to persuade?

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* Use concrete examples * Use emotion-arousing words * Use visual images * Use appropriate metaphors and similes * Use appropriate fear appeals * Appeal to a variety of emotions * Communicate emotions nonverbally * Tap into shared myths

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demagogue

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A speaker who gains control over others by using unethical emotional pleas and appeals to listeners' prejudices.

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What are the organizational patterns for persuasive messages?

answer

Problem-solution, Refutation, Cause and effect, and Motivated sequence.

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Problem-solution: Present the problem; than present the solution.

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Example: I. The national debt id too high II. We need to raise taxes to lower the debt.

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Refutation: Anticipate your listeners' key objections to your proposal and then address them.

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Example: I. Even though you may think we pay too much tax, we are really under taxed. II. Even though you may think the national debt will not go down, tax revenue will lower the deficit.

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Cause and effect: First present the cause of the problem; then note how the problem affects the listeners. Or identify a known effect: then document what causes the effect.

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Example: I. The high national debt is cause by too little tax revenue and too much government spending. II. The high national debt will increase both inflation and unemployment.

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Motivated sequence: A five-step pattern of organizing a speech; its steps are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.

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Example: I. Attention: Imagine a pile of $1,000 bills 67 miles high. That's our national debt. II. Need: The increasing national debt will cause hardships for our children and grandchildren. III. Satisfaction: We need higher taxes to reduce our debt. IV. Visualization: Imagine our country in the year 2050; it could have low inflation and full employment or be stuck with a debt ten times our debt today. V. Action: If you want to lower the debt by increasing tax revenue, sign this petition that I will send to our representatives.

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What are the 3 factors that contribute to credibility?

answer

Competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism. Initial credibility is your listeners' idea of your credibility before your start speaking. Derived credibility is the perception they form while you speak. Terminal credibility is the perception that remains after you've finished speaking. Specific strategies can enhance all three types of credibility.

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When using logic and evidence to persuade, what 3 types of reasoning are there?

answer

inductive: which moves from specific instances or examples to reach a general, probable conclusion. deductive reasoning: which moves from a general statement to reach to a specific, more certain conclusion. Causal reasoning: which relates two or more events so as to be able to conclude that one or more of the events caused the others.

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What 2 types of inductive reasoning are there?

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analogy and reasoning by sign

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What 4 types of evidence can you use?

answer

facts, examples, opinions, and statistics.

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Avoid using fallacious arguments.

answer

Avoid using fallacious arguments.

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How should you adapt your persuasive message?

answer

To receptive, neutral, and unreceptive audiences

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What are the 4 patterns for organizing a persuasive speech?

answer

problem-solution, refutation, cause and effect, and motivated sequence.

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What are the 5 steps of the motivated sequence?

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attention, need, statisfaction, visualization, and action.

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symposium

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A public discussion in which a series of short speeches is presented to an audience.

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forum

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A question-and-answer session that usually follows a public discussion or symposium.

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panel discussion

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a group discussion designed to inform an audience about issues or a problem or to make recommendations.

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public-relations speeches

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Speeches designed to inform the public, to strengthen alliances with them, an in some cases to recommend policy.

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kairos

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The circumstances surrounding the speech or the occasion for a speech.

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ceremonial (epideictic) speech

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A speech delivered on a special occasion for celebration, thanksgiving, praise, or mourning.

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speech of introduction

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A speech that provides information about another speaker.

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toast

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a brief salute to a momentous occasion.

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award presentation

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A speech that accompanies the conferring of an award.

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nomination speech

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A speech that officially names someone as a candidate for an office or a position.

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acceptance speech

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A speech of thanks for an award, nomination, or other honor.

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Keynote address

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A speech that sets the theme and tone for a meeting or conference.

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commencement address

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A speech delivered at a graduation or commencement ceremony.

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commemorative address

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A speech delivered during ceremonies held in memory of some past event and /or the person or persons involved.

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eulogy

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A speech of tribute delivered when someone has died.

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What are the nine types of speeches?

answer

Introductions, toasts, award presentations, nominations, acceptances, keynote addresses, commencement addresses, commemorative addresses and tributes, and eulogies.

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after-dinner speech

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A humorous presentation usually delivered in conjunction with a mealtime meeting or banquet.

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pun

answer

The use of double meaning to crate humor.

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spoonerism

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A phrase in which the initial sounds of words are switched.

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malapropism

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the mistaken use of a word that sounds much like the intended word.

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hyperbole

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exaggeration

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understatement

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Downplaying a act or event

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verbal irony

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Saying the opposite of what one means

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wit

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Relating an incident that takes and unexpected turn at the end.

Public Speaking: Chapters 8-11, 14-16 – Flashcards

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