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learning that occurs without the opportunity of first performing the learned response or being reinforced for it

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cognitive learning

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learning that involves mental processes we cannot directly observe

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cognitive learning

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processes like

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thinking, information processing, problem solving, and mental imaging

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psychologists who study cognitive learning maintain that humans and other animals are capable of _ without _

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new behaviors without actually having had a chance to perform them or being reinforced for them

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3 types of cognitive learning:

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insight learning, latent learning, and observational learning

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the sudden flash of inspiration that reveals the solution to a problem

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insight

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the process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs

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insight learning

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example

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Wolfgang Köhler used a chimp named Sultan who put 2 sticks together to reach a banana

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behaviorists argue that what you dont see is the history of

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reinforced behavior leading to an apparently sudden flash of "insight"

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learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided

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latent learning

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latent learning

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a kind of "hidden learning" that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not revealed in performance at the time that it occurs

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example

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Edward Tolman and C.H. Honzik trained rats to run a maze

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Edward Tolman, the lead investigator of latent learning argued that the rats had developed a

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cognitive map

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cognitive map

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a mental representation of the maze that allowed them to find their way to the goal box

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observational learning is also called

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vicarious learning

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learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others

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observational learning

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the person whose behavior is observed

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a model

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psychologist Albert Bandura believes that children learn to

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imitate aggressive behavior through observing social interactions in the home, the schoolyard, or on tv

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bandura highlights 4 key processes in observational learning;

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1. close attention 2. retention in memory 3. reproduction of observed behavior 4. breinforcement

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A relatively permanent change in behavior acquired through experience

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learning

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Ivan Pavlov discovered the form of learning we call

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classical conditioning

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the process of learning by which ca previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit an identical or similar response to one originally elicited by another stimulus as the result of the pairing of the 2 stimuli

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classical conditioning

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conditioned means _ or _

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acquired or learned

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you might think of classical conditioning as

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learning by association

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the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response

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extinction

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when the animal is again exposed to the conditioned stimulus, the extinguished response may return spontaneously in a phenomenon called

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spontaneous recovery

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the process of relearning a conditioned response after extinction

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reconditioning (usually takes a shorter amt of time than the original)

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the tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimuli to elicit a conditioned response

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stimulus generalization

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the tendency to differentiate among stimuli so that stimuli that are related to the original conditioned stimulus, but not identical to it, fail to elicit a conditioned response

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stimulus discrimination

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the process by which a new stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response as a result of its being paired with a conditioned stimulus that already elicits the conditioned response

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higher order conditioning

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strengthened conditioned responses depend on

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frequency of pairings, timing, and intensity of US

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Robert Rescorla took a _ perspective on classical conditioning

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cognitive

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Rescorla argued that conditioning depends not only on the repeated pairing of a previously NS and US, but on a _ factor

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cognitive

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the cognitive factor was the

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informational value of a conditioned stimulus as a reliable signal for predicting the occurrence of the US

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pavlov's classical conditioning helps explain such diverse behaviors as

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phobias, drug cravings, and acquired taste aversions

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Pavlovian conditioning also played an important role in psychology, especially in the development of

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behaviorism

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Watson set out with Rosalie Rayner to prove that _ could be acquired through classical conditioning

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a fear response

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an emotional response to a particular stimulus acquired through classical conditioning

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conditioned emotional reaction

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a form of therapy that involves the systematic application of the principles of learning

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behavior therapy

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aversions to particular tastes acquired through classical conditioning

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conditioned taste aversions

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John Watson left his mark not only on psychology, but also on the world of _

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advertising

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_ and _ showed that classical conditioning even extends to the workings of the immune system

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Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen

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the body's system of defense against disease

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immune system

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learning that results from the association of a response with its consequences

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operant conditioning

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Thorndike's principle that responses that have satisfying effects are more likely to recur, while those that have unpleasant effects are less likely to recur

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Law of Effect

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The tendency for a response to occur depends on

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the effects it has on the environment

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skinner believed that psychologists should limit themselves to the study of

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observable behavior

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What made Skinner so controversial was his belief in

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radical behaviorism

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the philosophical position that free will is an illusion or myth and that human and animal behavior is completely determined by environmental and genetic influences

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radical behaviorism

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behavior, whether animal or human, is completely determined by _ and _ factors

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environmental and genetic

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free will is

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but an illusion or myth

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Skinner majored in _

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English in college

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skinner worked mostly with _ and _

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rats and pigeons

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first focused on classically conditioned responses but soon began to explore the role of

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reinforcement

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reinforcement

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the environmental consequences that strengthen behavior

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Skinner wrote one of the most widely read novels of his time:

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Walden Two

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Skinner recognized that some responses occur _ly, like Pavlov said,

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reflexively

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however, classical conditioning

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is limited to explaining how new stimuli can elicit existing behaviors

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Skinner rejected Thorndike's _ concept that consequences influence behavior because they produce "satisfying effects"

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mentalistic

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Skinner held that organisms learn responses that _ on the environment to produce consequences

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operate

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The process of learning by which a response is strengthened by means of manipulating the consequences of the response

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Operant Conditioning

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a cue that signals that reinforcement is available if the subject makes a particular response

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discriminative stimulus

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an example of a discriminative stimulus is

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when is the better time to ask someone for a favor (facial cues)

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the process of shaping applies the

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method of successive approximations

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a process of learning that involves the reinforcement of increasingly closer approximations to the desired response

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shaping

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the method used to shape behavior that involves reinforcing ever-closer approximations to the desired response

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method of successive approximations

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_ and his colleague _ were the first to demonstrate experimentally the role of classical conditioning in the acquisition of taste aversions

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John Garcia and Bob Koelling

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Garcia was able to demonstrate that an aversion to a particular food could also be classically conditioned by administering the nausea-inducing drug _ (when?)

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after the rats ate the food

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so taste aversions can be acquired even when the _(flavor of the food) is presented a few hours before the _ (the nausea-inducing stimulus) is administered

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CS; US

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this shocked colleagues who thought that classical conditioning could only occur if the _ is followed almost immediately by the _

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CS; US

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John Garcia came up with an ingenious way to help

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sheep ranchers protect their sheep from coyotes

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Watson was a psychological consultant to a large _ firm, _

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advertising; the J. Walter Thompson Agency

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Watson's advertising campaign for _ featured a seductively dressed young woman

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popular toothpaste of the time, Pebeco

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Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen showed that classical conditioning even extends to the workings of the _

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immune system

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an experimental apparatus developed by B. F. Skinner for studying relationships between reinforcement and behavior

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Skinner Box

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the process of learning by which a response is strengthened by means of manipulating the consequences of a response

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operant conditioning

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In operant conditioning, the consequences of a response determine the likelihood that

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the response will occur again

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the response itself is called an

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operant response, or an operant

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behaviors that produce rewarding effects are _

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strengthened

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a well-trained operant becomes a

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habit

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Operant conditioning is also called _ since the behavior is...

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instrumental learning ; instrumental in bringing about rewarding consequences

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Skinner also showed how operant conditioning could explain some forms of

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superstitious behavior

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in Skinner's view, behavior acquired through coincidental association of a response and a reinforcement

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superstitious behavior

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in _ reinforcement, a response is strengthened by the presentation of a positive or rewarding stimulus after the response occurs

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positive

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in _ reinforcement, a response is strengthened when it leads to the removal of an "aversive" (unpleasant) stimulus

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negative

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examples of positive reinforcers:

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food, money, and social approval

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examples of negative reinforcers: (aversive stimuli)

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loud noise, cold, pain, nagging, child's crying

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example of negative reinforcement

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parent picks up crying baby and crying stops

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example of positive reinforcement (using same example)

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baby stops crying because the parent picked it up

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reinforcers that are naturally rewarding, such as food or sexual stimulation, because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives

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primary reinforcers

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primary reinforcers include

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food, water, sleep, relief from pain or loud noise, oxygen, sexual stimulation, and novel visual stimuli, such as holograms

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primary reinforcement value does not depend on _

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learning

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Learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers

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secondary reinforcers

question

secondary reinforcers are also called

answer

conditioned reinforcers

question

other types of secondary/conditioned reinforcers include

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good grades, awards, and praise

question

put a rat in a skinner box and reinforce it with food when it presses a bar, but only if it makes that response when a light is turned on

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discriminative stimulus

question

a cue that signals that reinforcement is available if the subject makes a particular response

answer

discriminative stimulus

question

example of discriminative stimuli

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when we ask someone for a favor, we only ask when we see the cue of a happy face

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example of discriminative stimuli on the road

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green light

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shaping applies the _

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method of successive approximations

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verbal reinfocement telling a child he or she is doing great each time the child performs the next step in a series of steps

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method of successive approximation

question

in operant conditioning, extinction is

answer

the process by which responses are weakened and eventually eliminated when the response is repeatedly performed but is no longer reinforced

question

predetermined plans for timing the delivery of reinforcement

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schedules of reinforcement

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a system of dispensing a reinforcement each time a desired response is produce

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schedule of continued reinforcement

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responses are more resistant to extinction under a schedule of _ reinforcement

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partial

question

a system of dispensing reinforcement in which only a portion of the desired responses is reinforced

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schedule of partial reinforcement

question

partial reinforcement is administered under 2 general kinds of schedules:

answer

ratio schedules and interval schedules

question

in ratio schedules, reinforcement is based on the

answer

number of responses

question

in interval schedules, reinforcement is based on the

answer

timing of responses

question

for each type, reinforcement can be administered on either a _ or _ basis

answer

fixed or variable

question

in a fixed ratio schedule, reinforcement is given after a

answer

specified number of correct responses

question

example

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piecework : workers paid according to the number of items they produce

question

fixed ratio schedules produce

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a constant, high level of response, with a slight dip in responses after each reinforcement

question

variable ratio schedule, the number of correct responses needed before reinforcement is given ...

answer

varies around some average number

question

example

answer

gambling (slot machine)

question

VR typically produce

answer

high, steady rates of response

question

VR schedules are more resistant to

answer

extinction

question

fixed interval schedule, reinforcement is given for a correct number of responses made after

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a fixed amount of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement

question

example (2)

answer

skinner box, regular test

question

fixed interval schedules typically produce a _ response pattern in which the rate of response dips just after reinforcement and then increases as the end of the interval approaches

answer

"scalloped"

question

variable interval schedule, the amount of time that must elapse before reinforcement can be given for a correct response is _

answer

variable

question

tend to produce a _, but _ rate of responses

answer

slow but steady

question

tend to be more resistant to _

answer

extinction

question

example

answer

pop quiz!!!!!

question

the learning of behaviors that allow an organism to escape from an aversive stimulus

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escape learning

question

the escape behavior is _ly reinforced

answer

negatively

question

the learning of behaviors that allow an organism to avoid an aversive stimulus

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avoidance learning

question

leads to the weakening or suppression of a response

answer

punishment

question

positive punishment

answer

adding or presenting an aversive stimulus

question

examples of punishing stimuli

answer

physical pain (spanking, harsh criticism, or monetary penalties)

question

negative punishment

answer

removes a reinforcing stimulus

question

example

answer

losing tv privelidges

question

applications of operant conditioning

answer

biofeedback training, behavior modification, and programmed instruction

question

through biofeedback training, people can learn to

answer

change certain bodily responses, including brainwave patterns and heart rate

question

the systematic application of learning principles to strengthen adaptive behavior and weaken maladaptive behavior

answer

behavior modification (b-mod)

question

Skinner established the first _ in a mental hospital

answer

token economy program

question

a form of behavior modification in which tokens earned for performing desired behaviors can be exchanged for positive reinforcers

answer

token economy program

question

skinner applied operant conditioning to education in the form of

answer

programmed instruction

question

a learning method in which complex material is broken down into a series of small steps that learners master at their own pace

answer

programmed instruction

question

skinner even designed a

answer

"teaching machine"

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