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Circadian Rhythm

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Biological clock through which our bodies synchronize with the 24 hour cycle of day and night

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Body Temperature related to Circadian Rhythm

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Body Temp rises a morning approaches. Small peak at afternoon. Drops at night before sleep.

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Sleep Urge

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Greatest at night with a small increase at mid day

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Sleep Need

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increases throughout the waking hours and is replenished during sleep

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Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

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Pinhead-sized clusters of 20,000 cells in hypothalamus. They control the circadian rhythm. Light triggers the SCN to decrease melatonin release (morning) from the pineal gland and increase release (evening) at night.

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Melatonin

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Sleep inducing hormone. Released by Pineal Gland!

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Melatonin vs Body Temperature

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More melatonin is released as body temp lowers.

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Ways to Disrupt Circadian Rhythms

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1. Staying up late and being exposed to bight light at night 2. Sleeping in on weekends 3. Flying to another time zone

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Resetting Circadian Rhythms

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Spend the next day outdoors 9to get bright light) can help reset the biological clock.

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Season Affective Disorder (SAD)

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Severe depression during the winter. Related to brevity and gloom of winter days.

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Light Therapy

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Daily exposure to bright lights can improve mood. Primary treatment for SAD

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Sleep

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part of circadian rhythm necessary for restoration and proper mental functioning. Unconscious state.

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Acute Lack of Sleep

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causes delusions and hallucinations.

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Chronic Lack of sleep

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causes obesity, impaired cognitive function, and other health problems

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Electroencephalogram (EEG)

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Used to measure brain waves during sleep.

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Sleep Stages

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5 of them. Every 90 minutes we pass through one of the 5 stages.

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Beta Waves

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Awake and Alert. associated with day to day wakefulness, arousal. Very fast 12-30 Hz (Frequency). Lowest amplitude.

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Alpha Waves

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Awake but Relaxed. Associated with relaxation. Eyes closed, but awake. 9-14 Hz. Low amplitude. Example; a meditating person exhibits alpha brain activity.

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Stage 1

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Transition between wakefulness and sleep. Relaxed and eyes closed. use of Theta Waves

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Theta Waves

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higher amplitude. slow frequency 5-8 Hz. regular wave form. Stage 1

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Stage 2

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Slower, more regular theta rhythms. Encounter sleep spindles and K complexes in here. Half of sleep time

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Sleep Spindles

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12-16 Hz. Bursts of activity. Occurs in stage 2

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K Complexes

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Large amplitude wave. Occurs in stage 2

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Stage 3

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Brain activity slows down even further. Use of Delta waves

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Delta Waves

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Slow freq 1.5-4 Hz. Large amplitude. Stage 3 and 4

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Stage 4

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EEG even slower and more regular. When least responsive to outside stimulation. Use of Delta waves

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Stage 5 or REM Sleep

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EEG looks like person is awake, but many Beta and Theta waves. Increased heart rate, blood pressure, breathing. Dreaming. Dreams are sometimes vivid but not always remembered. Boners here too.

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REM

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Rapid Eye Movement. Most other voluntary muscles paralyzed during this. -With each 90-minute cycle, stage 4 sleep decreases and REM sleep increases. -20% of sleep time

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Restoration Model

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Renew and restore bodily functions. (Eliminate waste, repair cellular damage)

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Evolutionary Models

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Sleep evolved in ways that enhance survival (less food at night, vulnerability to predators in the dark)

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Memory Consolidation

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Strengthens neural circuits that regulate memory. Replay events of the day to form long-term memories

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Rebound Effect

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We need REM sleep. When deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep, we show increased time of REM sleep. Most mammals experience this.

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Sleep Deprivation

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Fatigue, impaired concentration and memory, weakened immune system, obesity, greater vulnerability to accidents. In animal studies sleep deprivation led to death.

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Insomnia

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A sleep disorder. Persistent problems in falling or staying asleep. Many people experience at some point in their life.

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Causes of Insomnia

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Concern about grades or upcoming deadlines, financial concerns, relationship concerns, preparing for big event, difficulty separating one's self from the events of the day are...

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Development of Good Sleeping Habits

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1. go to bed and wake up same time everyday including weekends. 2. never consume alcohol or caffeine just before going to bed 3. Regular exercise but not immediately before bed. 5. If none work, get up and do something else. Don't force yourself to sleep

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Narcolepsy

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A sleep disorder. Uncontrollable sleep attacks (periodic overwhelming sleepiness). Last less then 5 mins, but occur at most inopportune of times.Sudden lapse directly into REM with loss of muscular movement. 1/2000 adults (Hereditary). Traffic- Snoozing is second to only to boozing.

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Sleep Apnea

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A sleep disorder. Cessation of breathing for 10 seconds or longer during sleep. More then 5 episodes/hr is considered pathological. Decrease in oxygen leads to awaken person. Can happen up to 500 times a night. 1/20 have sleep apnea. Associated with obesity, high blood pressure, heart problems; episode prolonged by sleeping pills and alcohol

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Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

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Infants suddenly die while sleeping. Sleep apnea plays a role in this.

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Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CRAP)

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treatment using mild air pressure to keep airways open. Used for sleep apnea

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Night Terrors

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Sudden awakenings from non REM sleep. Mostly between ages 3-8. High arousal- appearance of being terrified, doubling of heart and breathing rates. Seldom fully awake- recall little to nothing the next morning. Occurring during first few hour of sleep usually stage 4

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Nightmares

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usually frightening dream, occur often. Occur during early morning REM sleep like other dreams.

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Sleepwalking

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Sleep disorder. Stage 4. usually harmless and not recalled the next morning. Typically return to bed. Sleepwalking combined with binge eating= nocturnal eating disorder. Young children most likely to have night terrors and sleepwalk. get better as age increases.

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Dream Theories

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1. Unconscious Wish Fulfillment Theory 2. Dreams-for-Survival theory 3. Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

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Freud's Unconscious Wish Fulfillment Theory

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Theory that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to be fulfilled. Latent Content and Manifest Content.

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Latent Content

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Wishes are threatened to conscious awareness, so the actual wishes are disguised by more obvious subjects. Don't get it? It is kind of like a censor which protects the person from the real meanings of the dream because the real meaning can be difficult for the human to cope with.

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Manifest Content

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The apparent story line of dreams which the true meaning has little relation.

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Examples for Manifest and Latent Content

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Symbol (Manifest Content) is Flying, traveling through a tunnel, crossing a bridge, entering a room can be Interpreted (Latent Content) for the desire to have sexual intercourse. Another example- Symbol in dream (manifest) is apples and grapefruit so the interpretation (latent) is the person thinking about boobs. Another example is manifest is sticks, guns, and bullets, so the latent is penises.

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Brain Imaging for Unconscious Wish Fulfillment Theory.

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PET scans showed that a) Limbic and paralimbic regions of the brain (emotion and behavior) are particularly active during REM sleep (when most dream happen) b)Association areas of prefrontal cortex (controls logical analysis and attentions) are inactive during REM sleep - Emotion center is active, while the rational thought is off

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Dreams-For-Survival Theory

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Dreams permit information that is critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep. Evolutionary: small brains of animal ancestors couldn't process everything during the day. Represent daily concerns of every day living. Certain dreams permit people to focus on and consolidate memories. "How-to-do-it" memories. (Particularly motor skills) -Some brain regions active when humans learn something (a maze) are active again during REM sleep

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Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

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-Takes a neuroscience perspective. Hobson's theory that the brain produces random electrical energy during REM sleep that stimulates memories stored in the brain. -It takes a and weaves chaotic memories into a logical story line, filling in the gaps to produce a rational scenario. -Dreams start as random processed and culminate into something meaningful which is related to the dreamer's concerns. -Meaning of dreams is not necessarily disguised.

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Activation Information Modulation Theory (AIM)

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Refined version of Activation-Synthesis Theory. -Dreams initiated by the pons, which sends random signals to the cerebral cortex. example: areas of brains related to movement are involved with the motion aspects of the dream.

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Hypnosis

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Trance like state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others.

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Variations in peoples hypnosis susceptibility

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5-20% cannot be hypnotized at all. 15% very easily hypnotized most people fall in between.

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Expressed characteristics of hypnotized

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high ability to concentrate high ability to become completely absorbed in what they are doing (Reading and becoming unaware of surroundings)

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Process of Hypnosis- How is someone hypnotized?

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Person make comfortable in quiet environment. Hypnotist explains what is going to happen. Hypnotist tells person to concentrate on a specific object or image. Once person is relaxed, hypnotist makes suggestions that the person interprets are being produced by hypnosis ("you are sleeeeepyy") Person experiences these sensation, so they believe is is caused by the hypnotist

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Common misconceptions about hypnosis

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people do not lose all will of their own. They will not conduct antisocial behavior. They will not carry out self-destructive acts. People will not reveal hidden truths about themselves. They can still lie. People cannot be hypnotized against their will

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Controversy about Hypnosis state

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Some say it is a different level of consciousness and some argue no. -Increasing agreement that it lies along a continuum meaning neither a totally different state nor a totally similar to a normal waking consciousness

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Successful Utilization of Hypnosis

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1) Controlling pain: when hypnotized pain is gone or reduced 2) Reducing smoking: sometimes help people stop smoking through hypnotic suggestions BroTip: don't smoke, its unattractive. 3) Treatment Psychological Disorders: reduce stress/anxiety 4) Assisting in law enforcement: witnesses recall memories during hypnosis 5) Improving Athletic Performance-players showed imporvement

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Meditation

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-A learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness. -Meditation usually consists of the repetition of a mantra (a sound, word, or syllable) over and over. -Common in many cultures -there a different types of Meditation -During meditation, we see oxygen usage, heart rate, and blood pressure decrease.

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Reason to Meditate

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1) Relaxation 2) Self realization 3)Cognitive benefits- improves academic performance, concentration, memory, self-control, empathy, self esteem. Increases forgiveness. 4) Health Benefits- Relieve stress and pain

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Psychoactive Drugs

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Induce state of altered consciousness. It affects person's... 1. Emotions 2. Perceptions 3. Behaviors

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Addictive drugs

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Produce a Biological or Psychological dependence in the user.

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Psychological Dependence

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Psychological need to use a drug to deal with everyday life. Relieves negative emotions or to get "high" -Caffeine and nicotine are examples

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Physical Dependence (Biological)

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Physiological need for a drug. -Body becomes used to drug, so it can't function without it. -Development of Tolerance marked by unpleasant Withdrawal symptoms

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Tolerance

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Diminishing effect of drug with regular use. Need a larger dose to attain the same effects.

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Withdrawal

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Discomfort and stress that follow discontinued use

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Classification of Drugs

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1. Stimulants 2. Depressants 3. Narcotics 4. Hallucinogens

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Stimulants

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-Increase neural firing and arouse the nervous system. -Causes a rise in hart rate, blood pressure, and muscle tension. -Activates the reward pathways of the brain, causing an increase of Dopamine in the prefrontal cortex. -Causes feelings of pleasure and well-being

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Types of Stimulants

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1. Caffeine 2. Nicotine 3. Amphetamines (Speed) 4. Cocaine (crack)

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Caffeine

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Stimulant. -Can increase your alertness and improve your mood -Too much can result in nervousness and insomnia -Can cause physical dependence (headaches on weekends due to sudden drop in coffee)

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Nicotine

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Stimulant. Found in cigarettes: very powerful and addictive stimulant -Effects: cancer (lung, oral), emphysema, second-hand smoke is just as dangerous. -Associated with strong withdrawal symptoms making it difficult to quit smoking -Activates neural mechanisms similar to those activated by cocaine!

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Amphetamines aka Speed

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Stimulant. Stimulate the CNS: a sense of energy and alertness, increased concentration, talkativeness, heightened confidence, a mood "high", reduced fatigue -Can also cause loss of appetite, increased anxiety, irritability, paranoid ideas, and suspiciousness, loss of interest in sex -Increase release of Dopamine and Serotonin -High doses can cause convulsion and death ie: Adderall and Meth

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Adderall

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An amphetamine-based medication used for ADHD and narcolepsy.

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Methamphetamine aka Meth

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The most dangerous street drug. -Stimulant from Amphetamine category -1.5mil users -Cheap, VERY additive -Powerful stimulant that produced strong lingering high -Can cause brain damage and loss of neurons in cerebral cortex.

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Cocaine aka Crack

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Stimulant. -Increased psychological well-being, confidence, and alertness. -Rapidly absorbed so it takes effects almost immediately -Blocks Dopamine re-uptake-brain is flooded with dopamine induced pleasurable sensations -Use can permanently rewire brain: makes it very difficult to overcome this addiction. Users deteriorate mentally and psychically over time -Can cause hallucination (Insects crawling over body) or Death. -Inhaled, snorted, smoked, or injected 1.8 mil users

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Depressants

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Cause neurons to fire more slowly. Stimulate GABA neurotransmission: activation of receptor reduces chances of action potential

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Types of Depressants

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1. Alcohol 2. Barbiturates 3. Benzodiasepines

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Alcohol

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Depressant. Most common one. Effects become more pronounced as dose increases: emotionally and phsycial unstable, poor judgment and agressive/impulsive acts, imapired memory, sluured inchorant speech, passing out, death from alcohol poisoning

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Alcoholics

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Must drink constantly in order to feel well enough to function in their daily lives

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Korsakoff's Syndrome

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Cause severe memory loss due to Thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency brought on by malnutrition (substituting alcohol calories for nutritional calories) -Cannot reverse damage: brain damage in thalamus, mammillary bodies and hippocampus -Anterograde and Retrograde amnesia result from this

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Wisconsin vs US drinking

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All yo uneed to know about this is Wisconsin drinks more then the US on average for use, binge drinking, and heavy drinking.

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Binge Drinking

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Men: 5 or more drinks in one sitting Women: 4 or more drinks in one sitting Wisconsin has most binge drinkers 23% in 2008.

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Barbiturates

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Depressant. Types Includes: Nembutal, Seconal, and phenobarbital. They all end in "-al." -Binds to GABAa receptor to reduce CNS excitation. -Prescribed by physicians to induce sleep or reduce stress. -Produce a sense of relaxation. -Psychologically and physically addictive *Can be deadly when combined with alcohol! Depresses the muscles of diaphragm to extent where breathing stops.

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Benzodiazepines

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Depressants. Types include: Drugs ending in "-am." Diazeam (Valium), Alprazolam (Xanax). Prescribed for anxiety, seizures -Also have a special binding site on GABAa receptor -Physically and mentally addictive. *Rohypnol aka Date Rape

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Rohypnol

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a Benazodiazephine. -Called Date-Rape Drug -When mixed with alcohol, it can prevent victims from resisting sexual assault. -No memory of assault.

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Narcotics

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Increase relaxation, relieve pain and anxiety. -Essential for treatment of severe pain *Includes Opiates

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Opiates

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The most powerful narcotics. -Morphine and Heroin (derived from poppy seeds) are opiates -We have natural (endogenous) opiates in our bodies (endorphins) that bind to special opioid receptors +Oxycodone (Percocet)- Pain reliever after surgery: can be addictive and cause nausea, vomiting, and constipation. +Codeine- cough suppressant, induces sleep

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Types of Narcotics

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1. Heroin 2. Morphine

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Heroin

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Narcotic Usually injected directly into veins. "rush" of positive feeling, similar to sexual orgasm. -3 to 5 hrs of sense of well being and peacefulness -Difficult to treat due to powerful positive feelings -When effects wear off, extreme anxiety follows along with a desperate desire for more. -Treated by Methadone -Research ongoing to find non-additive substitutes for heroin

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Methadone

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Possible treatment for Heroin Synthetic chemical that satisfies the users physical cravings without the "high" of heroin -it works but can cause addiction to Methadone instead

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Morphine

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Narcotic. Derived from poppy seeds Nearly identical chemically to heroin Is an opiate analgesic medication used to medically control sever pain Highly additive Produces euphoria and positive feelings Rapid tolerance -> requires more drug, Withdrawal very difficult

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Hallucinogens

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Drugs that produce hallucination or change perceptual process

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Types of Hallucinogens

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1. Marijuana 2. Acid and Ecstasy

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Marijuana

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Hallucinogen. Aka Pot. -Most common, widespread hallucinogen -Active ingredient is THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) found in common weed (cannabis). -We have cannabinoid receptors in our brains that bind THC -Smoked, cooked and eaten. -34% high school 12% 8th grade (2004). -Produces euphoria and general well being --Sensory experience is more vivid and intense. -Memory impaired. -Impaired sexual activity in men, decreased immune system, increased risk of lung cancer. -Medical use: prevents nausea from chemo, treats some AIDS symptoms, and relieves muscle spasms in spinal cord injury.

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Acid and Ecstasy

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Hallucinogen. aka LSD and MDMA Both effect Serotonin levels in brain causing altered brain cell activity and perception

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MDMA

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Ecstasy. -Sense of peacefulness and calm -Some evidence that it causes long term changed serotonin receptors in brain

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LSD

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Acid. (lysergic acid diethylamine) -Produces vivid hallucinations -perceptions of colors, sounds. and shapes - even mundane experience very exciting -time perception distorted, objects and people may look radically different -Some experience terrifying emotions if they had emotional difficulties in the past -Flashbacks long after drug use.

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Learning

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Relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience. Two Types... 1. Non-Associative 2. Associative

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Non-Associative Learning

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No association between 2 discrete stimuli. Changes due to Habituation and Sensitization,

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Habituation

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Decreased response to a stimulus that initially elicited a large response. ie: Jump when hear loud noise, then jump less if the noise repeats

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Sensitization

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Increased response to a stimulus that initially elicited a small response. ie: hear a sound at night, get scared, then jump when hear the sound again.

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Associative learning

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A. Learn specific association between two discrete stimuli. B. Learning new response to previously neutral stimuli. C. Learn association between a response and a consequence. ie: a seal balances a ball. It gets a treat. He is more likely to balance the ball more. Two types... 1. Classical Conditioning 2. Operant Conditioning *More examples on Slide 8 chp 6 power point

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Classical Conditioning

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Association between two stimuli/events. ie: two related events are lighting (Stimulus 1) and Thunder (Stimulus 2). When we see lightning we anticipate thunder so we tense up a bit. ie: You like eating Culver's. When you pass a Culver's your mouth waters.

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Operant Conditioning

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Association between a response (behavior) and a consequence ie: a seal balances a ball. It gets a treat. He is more likely to balance the ball more. ie: Rule breaking to get attention

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Ivan Pavlov

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Russian Physiologist who never intended to do Psychological research. Won the Nobel Prize for his work on Digestion (1904) Remembered for his experiments on the basic learning not for physiology

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Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning

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Organism associates two stimuli in three steps: 1. Stimulus naturally evokes a reflex (Dogs salivate when they see food) 2. A neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that evokes the reflex (Bell) 3. The neutral stimulus alone comes to evoke the reflex (repeated pairing bell with food causes salivation to just the sound the bell)

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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

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Naturally and automatically triggers a response (food an odor) -A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned

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Unconditioned Response (UCR)

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Unlearned, naturally occurring response to an Unconditioned Stimulus. (Salivation) -A response that is natural and needs no training

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Neutral Stimulus

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Before conditioning, this stimulus (ie: the bell) does not naturally cause the response of interest

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

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A once-neural stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus to cause a response formerly caused only by he unconditioned stimulus. (Can be anything. In the dog story it was a the bell)

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Conditioned Response (CR)

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Learned response to the Conditioned Stimulus

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Pavlov's Classic Experiment

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The Story of the Dog and his Meat... A. Before Conditioning: The neutral stimulus is the sound of the bell. When the dog hears the bell his reacts by pricking his ears. This response is unrelated to meat. When presented with the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) which is the meat, the dog displayed an Unconditioned Response (UCR) which is salivation. B. During Conditioning: Every time the Neutral Stimulus is displayed, meat (UCS) is brought out for the dog. The dog then started to salivate (UCR) C. After Conditioning: The neutral stimulus has now become a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) (The sound of the bell) elicited the Conditioned Response (CS) which is the salivation

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Example of Classical Conditioning

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Example #2... -Your Romantic partner (UCS) makes you happy (UCR). -The smell of shampoo (Neutral stimulus) + the partner (UCS) which makes your happy (UCR). -So, every time you smell the shampoo (CS) you feel happy (CR)

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Aversion Therapy

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The use of classical conditioning to stop a specific behavior. ie: they make a nauseous drug become associated with alcohol so every time the person see alcohol they feel nauseous. Prevents them from drinking.

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Application of Classical Conditioning

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Enuresis (Bed-wetting). Child sleeps on a pad into which a bell is sewn. Every time he wets bed, the bell will ring causing him to wake up. So, through classical conditioning, every time he feels the urge to pee, he will wake up.

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Acquisition

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The initial learning stage in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus is formed. Establishment of a CR.

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Factors for Efficient Acquisition

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1. Sequence 2. Timing 3. Intensity of Stimulus

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Sequence

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The CS must be presented before the UCS. Most effective if the neutral stimulus presentation continues through the UCS presentation. -Factor for efficient acquisition.

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Timing

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The optimum interval between the CS and the UCS is about half a second -Factor for efficient acquisition.

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Intensity of Stimulus

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When greater amounts of food are presented, learning occurs more quickly. More intense stimulus, faster learning. -Factor for efficient acquisition.

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Extinction

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CS by itself. Diminishing of a CR -A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.

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Extinction used as Treatment

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Sometimes we learn association that are not good for us. 1. Fear Learning- Expose to fearful stimulus in a safe context to decreases association between fearful stimulus and response. 2. Drug Seeking- Try to extinguish the association between cues associated with drug seeking (people, places...) and response to drug.

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Spontaneous Recovery

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The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest with no further conditioning. ie: say the dog no longer responds to the bell and salivates due to extinction. Sometimes when he does hear the bell he will start to salivate. But it becomes extinct again.

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Little Albert

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John Watson uses a white rat and a loud noise to create the fear of white furry animals on this baby boy

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Stimulus Generalization

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Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called this... The more similar the two stimuli are, the more likely generalization is to occur. ie: little Albert was trained to fear a rat. He also fear other white furry creatures as they seem similar. ie: get really sick from eating pizza. Get nauseous when seeing pasta.

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Stimulus Discrimination

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Occurs if two stimulus are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not. -The ability to differentiate between stimuli -The learned ability to distinguish between a cs and other stimuli that do not signal an UCS. ie: LeShawna's dog knows when a food can is being open so it runs over to her. When she opens a jar that makes a similar sound, the dog knows it isn't dog food so it doesn't run over. It is able to differentiate the sound. (other senses can discriminate as well)

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One Trial Learning

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When a conditioned stimulus is so powerful that it takes one trail to produce a conditioned response. ie: bike rider hit by a car, fear of riding a bike.

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Taste Aversion

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Organism that ingest unpalatable foods are likely to avoid similar foods in the future. ie: because of prior experience with meat that had been laced with poison, a coyote does not obey its natural instincts and ignores the roadkill what would otherwise be a tasty meal.

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Biological Predisposition

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Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive (preparedness) -Some stimuli and responses can be easily associated (Electric shock +pictures of a snake vs flowers) -Organisms best learn behaviors similar to their natural behavior (Can easily makes a hamster dig a hole than wash its faces by food rewards)

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Thorndike's Puzzle Box

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Placing a cat in a box in which when the cat stepped on the pedal to open the door it could escape. Over several trails, the cat escaped much more quickly.

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Law of Effect

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By Edward L Thorndike. -Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated. -Law becomes the foundation for modern behaviorism.

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B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

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Developed "behaviorism," which did not accept that "private events" like thinking and emotions caused behavior. -Behavior was due to simple cause and effect -Coined the term Operant Conditioning -Invented the Operant conditioning chamber (Skinner Box)

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Operant Conditioning cont.

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Organisms operates on its environment to produce a desirable outcome -type of learning in which behavior is... 1.strengthened if followed by Reinforcement or 2. Diminished if followed by punishment

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Skinner Box

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Chamber with a highly controlled environment, used to study operant conditioning processed with lab animals. Animals press levers in response to stimuli in order to receive "rewards" *Ties into Shaping

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Shaping

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Rewarding successive approximation to form a certain behavior. -Behavioral technique ie: rewarded at different steps

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Reinforcer

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Key in Operant Conditioning. Any event that Strengthens the Behavior it follows. Process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.

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Primary Reinforcer

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Satisfies a biological need. ie: food for hungry, warmth for a cold person, and relief from pain

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Secondary Reinforcer

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Becomes reinforcing because of association with primary reinforcer ie: money- it is valuable because we learned it lets us buy desirable objects including Primary Reinforcers like food and shelter making it a secondary reinforcer ie: good grades

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Positive Reinforcers

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Stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response ie: food, water, money, praise ie: paychecks at end of week for worker will reinforce them to come back to work the next week ie: Clients who successfully complete a whole series of therapy sessions without reverting to maladaptive behavior receive a free relaxation tape of their choice.

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Negative Reinforcers

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Unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated. ie: removal of noise, itch, pain ie: itch- use of ointment on rash and if it improves we will be more likely to use that particular ointment again ie:I swam a mile yesterday and my biceps ache. To reduce the pain, I took ibuprofen and felt much better within an hour. The next time I was sore from swimming, I took ibuprofen.

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Punishment

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Stimulus that decreases the likelihood that a prior behavior will occur again. *Powerful controller of unwanted behavior Two types...Positive and Negative

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Positive Punishment

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Adds an unpleasant/negative stimulus to reduce the behavior ie: yelling, fines, imprisonment ie: When students in the class started whispering to one another, the teacher gave them a warning look, which resulted in them being quiet and allowed him to go back to the lesson.

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Negative Punishment

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Removing a pleasant/positive stimulus to reduce the behavior ie: grounding, demotion at work, taking away phone ie: When I talked back to my parents, I lost my driving privileges.

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Frequency of Behavior

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*Reinforcement increases frequency. *Punishment decreases frequency.

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Stimulus Manipulation

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*Positive adds a stimulus *Negative removes a stimulus.

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Pitfalls of Punishment

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1. Frequently ineffective: employee may quit, teen may sneak out 2. Physical punishment may convey that physical aggression is an acceptable response: Child may act aggressive towards other, reduce self-esteem of recipient, punisher may become feared 3. Does not convey information about appropriate behavior 4. Sometimes leads to an increase in the punished behavior because of increased attention 5. May lead to escape or avoidance behaviors

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Schedules of Reinforcement

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Different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior 2 types: Continuous and Partial

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Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

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Reinforce response only part of the time. ie: slot machine 4 types: based on number of behaviors and based on times elapsed 1. Fixed-Ratio 2. Variable-Ratio 3. Fixed-Interval 4. Variable-Interval *Schedule of Reinforcement

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Continuous Reinforcement

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Reinforcing desired response every time ie: vending machine *Schedule of Reinforcement

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Fixed-Ratio Schedule

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Reinforcement given only after a specific number of responses are made. -Outcome: short pauses occur after each response. More responses=more reinforcement, produces a high rate of responding. ie: a maid takes a break every 3 rooms she cleans -Partial Reinforcement

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Variable-Ratio Schedule

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Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses made rather than after a fixed number -Outcome: Responding occurs at a very high rate ie: Keep inserting coins into a slot machine that pays off at an average of 20th time -Partial Reinforcement

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Fixed-Interval Schedule

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Reinforcement for a response occurs only if a fixed time period has elapsed -Outcome: Produces lower rates of responding, especially just after reinforcement has been presented. Organism learns that a certain amount of time must elapse between reinforcements. Overall rates of response relatively low ie: a maid takes a break every 15 minutes. Paycheck every month -Partial Reinforcement

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Variable-Interval Schedule

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Time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed -Outcome- Produces a fairly steady stream of responses ie: pop quizzes. Fishing: you don't know when fish will bite. -Partial Reinforcement

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Tolman's Demonstration

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Rats roam around through a maze once a day for 17 days. Rewarded control group reinforced with food every time they reach the end of the maze.Unrewarded control group never received reinforcement. Findings: unrewarded control group made most errors consistently. reward group made less errors. Unrewarded group showed immediate reduction in errors when they were actually given food at the end.

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Latent Learning

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Unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior. ie: the rats in the maze not given food went to different parts because they thought they were not at the end. The rats given the food went straight to the place where they were given food.

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Cognitive Learning Theory

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An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning. -Challenges the Stimulus-Response (S-R) model -Argues that in between he stimulus and response there is the organisms (O) view of the world (S-O-R)

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Observational Learning

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Learning that does not involved direct experience (vicarious learning) -Learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model: Social Cognitive Approach *Albert Bandura played a role in this

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Four Main Processes of Observational Learning

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1. Attention: attend to what the model is doing/saying 2. Retention: Keep in in your memory 3. Motor Reproduction: imitating the model's action (motor skills are important) 4. Being motivated to learn and carry out behavior in future: Whether the model's action is followed by a consequence Vicarious Reinforcement-If the model's actions is rewarded, the observer will be more likely to repeat the behavior

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Social Learning Theory

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Learning that can occur through observation. (Attention, retention, motor reproduction, vicarious reinforcement) -This learning process is called "modeling" + Prosocial behaviors can be learned ie: polite manners + Antisocial Behaviors may also be learned ie: exposure to violent media resulting in aggression

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Modeling

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Observing and imitating a specific behavior

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Memory

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Process by which one encodes, stores, and retrieves information

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Three Stage Model of Memory

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1. Sensory Memory 2. Short-term Memory 3. Long-Term Memory

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Sensory Memory

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Briefly holds incoming sensory information. All information stored in sensory memory, but not able to recall. Holds a relatively full and detailed representation of the world, -Longer the delay, the greater the memory loss. Meaning if it doesn't move onto the next stage of memory it is lost for good.

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Duration of Sensory Memories

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The duration of sensory memory varies from the different senses. 1. Iconic (vision): .5 sec long 2. Echoic (hearing): 3-4 sec long 3. Haptic (touch): greater then 1 sec long

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Short-Term (Working) Memory

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Processes information received fro sensory memory and information retrieved from long-term memory -Requires attention and rehearsal. -Typically encodes an incomplete representation of the stimulus because of limited capacity -Capacity= 7 +/- "chunks" of information -If information not rehearsed, then memory lasts for 15-25 seconds ie: phone number

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Chunk

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Meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit. 7+/- 2 is the magical number of chunk capacity. Found by George Miller

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Working Memory

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STM is often referred to this name. -Working memory is not just a way station to Long Term memory. -Keep information active so we can do something with it Set

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Storage and Rehearsal of Working Memory

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The "Central Executive Processor" juggles information to reason and make decisions and coordinates the 3 storage and rehearsal systems... 1. Visual Store- visual and spatial information 2. Verbal Store- speech, words, numbers 3. Episodic Buffer- episodes or events

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Serial Position Effect

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Tendency of a person to recall the first and last items on a list then the middle ones. ie: in lecture when the lists of words popped up we remembered bird and dog (first words) and horse and daisy (last words) the best *Primacy and Recency Effect stem from this

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Primacy Effect

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Items early in the list remembered better

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Recency Effect

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Items late in the list remembered best

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Short Term Memory Methods

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1. Chunks ie: PBSFOXCNNABCCBSMTVNBC turns into PBS FOX CNN ABC CBS MTV NBC 2. Rehearsal: Repetition of information that has entered short-term memory. Two Function: a. Maintains information in STM while repeating and b. Transfers information to long-term memory 3. Elaboration: information is organized in some fashion. use of Mnemonics.

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Mnemonics

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Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. -Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organization devices in aiding memory ie: ROYGBIV=colors of rainbow

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Long-Term Memory

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Stores information for longer periods of time -Thought to have unlimited capacity -Tertiary Memory-Information remembered for more than 5 years.

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Long-Term Memory Modules

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LTM is divided into two separates memories: Declarative and Procedural Declarative Memory is divided again into two parts: Semantic and Episodic

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Procedural Memory

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Memory for skills and habits ie: riding a bike or hitting a baseball. -Also called nondeclarative memory -Module of LTM

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Declarative Memory

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Memory for factual information ie: names, faces, dates. A bike has two wheels. -Module of LTM

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Semantic Memory

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Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts ie: My niqa George Washington wore a wig. -Division of Declarative Memory

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Episodic Memory

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Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context ie: first kiss (yum)

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Types of LTM

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Long Term Memory has two types... 1. Explicit 2. Implicit

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Explicit Memory

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Intentional or conscious recollection of information (Declarative memory)

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Implicit Memory

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Memories of which people are not consciously aware but that can affect subsequent performance and behavior. (Procedural memory) -"retention without remembering", you don't like someone for an unknown reason, prejudice and discrimination toward minority groups may arise from implicit memories

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Priming

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A phenomenon in which exposure to a word.concept (called a Prime) later makes it easier to recall related information. ie: yellow brings to mind banana -This method is used to study implicit memory

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Hippocampus

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Medial Temporal Lobe Central role in the consolidation of spatial, contextual, relational memories -Integrates information from association cortices and sub cortical structures (amygdala, brain stem) to form a complete memory -Memory sent to cerebral cortex for storage

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Amydgala

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Medial Temporal Lobe Involved in memories involving emotion (fear, anxiety, happiness)

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Prefrontal Cortex

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Frontal Lobe Critical for working memory (short-term memory)

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Striatum and Cerebellum

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Necessary for procedural learning and classical/operant learning and memory

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Patient HM

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Henry Molaison age 27 Removal of medial temporal lobe Had impaired Explicit memory but Unimpaired Implicit Memory

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Anterograde Amnesia

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Couldn't remember new declarative info

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Retrograde Amnesia

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Cannot remember declarative past info

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Recall

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Memory task in which specific information must be retrieved ie: fill in the blanks on a test -In order to have a conscious memory, information must be retrieved from a long-term memory and sent to short term memory

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Recognition

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Pick out items from a list of items ie: multiple choice questions -Recognition much easier

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Semantic Network Models

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Mental representations of clusters of interconnected information. -Memories are held in a storage by a web of associations

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Retrieval Cues

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Anchor points you can use to access the target information when you want to retrieve it later ,OR in other words, a stimulus that allows you to recall a long term memory because it is connected to the memory. The more retrieval cues you have, the better your chances of finding a route to the suspended memory. Important in Encoding Specificity Related to Semantic Networks

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Spreading Activation

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Knowledge stored in semantic networks (mental representations of clusters of interconnected information). Recalling one memory activates other memories in this network.

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Engram

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term for the physical memory trace in the brain that corresponds to a memory

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Levels of Processing Theory

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Meaning, greater the depth of initial processing, the more likely we are to retain the information. -Deep processing= process based on meaning -At shallow levels, information processed in terms of physical and sensory aspects -At deeper levels, its meaning and implications are analyzed ie: Take the word "EAGLE"...Shallow: capital letters and it has 5 letters. Deep: we would try to fit it into a sentence or category

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Rote Memorization

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memorizing a list of key terms for a test is unlikely to produce long-term recollections of information

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Deeper Semantic Processing

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reflecting on how the levels of process are related and applied to other contexts. Is good for long term recollection of information

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Encoding Specificity

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Physical surroundings or physiological state can become encoded as retrieval cues. Memories are enhanced when retrieval conditions match those present during encoding 2 types... 1. Context-Dependent 2. State-Dependent

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Context-Dependent Memory

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Scuba divers who learned a list of words while under water later recalled them best while under water, whereas words they learned on land were best recalled on land. BroTip: This basically explains that try not to study with music because while you are taking a test you won't have that music playing.

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State-Dependent Memory

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Physiological/psychological state is used as a retrieval cue -Ability to retrieve information greater when internal state at time of retrieval matches original state during learning. -Usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood -The emotions or moods serve as the retrieval cues our memories are Mood-Congruent! ie: A girl is drunk and becomes friends with a guy. The next day the girl doesn't remember who she befriended. After getting drunk again, the girl remembers who she befriend and talks to the guy again.

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Flashbulb Memories

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Specific, important, or suprising events that are so vivid in memory it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event. ie: 9/11, Boston Marathon bombing, car accident, night of graduation, prom, sexual experience

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Constructive Processes

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Processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events

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Schemas

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Organized bodies of information stored in memories that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled. Meaning, our memories often consist of a reconstruction of previous experience. ie: a little girl develops a schema for a house. She knows that a horse is large, has four legs, and a tail. When she sees a cow, she initially calls it a horse until she is told it is cow. She will modify her existing schema of a horse and will create a new schema for a cow.

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Autobiographical Memory

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Recollection of circumstances and episode from our own lives. -Encompass episodic memories we hold about ourselves -Forget information about our past that's incompatible with how we currently see ourselves (remember good, not bad) -Constructive processes bias the accuracy of autobiographical memory ie: college kids remember their good grades and no their bad grades

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Memory Construction

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Filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make recall more coherent. *Misinformation Effect relates to this

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Misinformation Effect

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Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. -Can incorporate information that did not happen into memory and be completely convinced of its accuracy. ie: Elizabeth Loftus, writer of Eye Witness Testimony, showed subjects film of traffic accident and then asked... Group A: How fast were the cars going when they "hit" each other? Group B: How fast were the cars going when they "smashed" into each other? The results were the speed estimates were faster when words were more suggestive of fast speeds. So...it is common to see people convicted of crimes be released when they find DNA evidence instead of relying on eye witnesses

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Children's Eyewitness Recall

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Can be unreliable if leading questions are posed. -Can make young children incorporate nearly anything into their memories because they trust adults and want to please them. -Can be made to report (among other things) like having seen a thief steal food, receive genital exam from a doctor, or been touched inappropriately

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Ways to Make Children Eyewitness Recall Accurate

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They can be accurate... if interviews are neutrally worded, interviewers are less suggestive, if children haven't talked with the adults involved, if the disclosure is made in a first interview with a neutral person.

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Repressed Memories

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Recollection of events initially so shocking that they're pushed into the unconscious -Remain hidden until triggered by some current circumstance -Repressed memories may be false! False Memory -Developed by Sigmund Freud

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False Memory

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Elizabeth Lotus -Develop when people are unable to recall the source of their Repressed Memory. When source becomes unclear people may become confused about whether it actually happened or they imagined it. *Such is the Memory Construction Process in which people can recall being abducted by UFOs, victimized by a satanic cult, molested

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Four Main Ways Memory Fails (Forgetting)

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1. Encoding Failure 2. Decay Theory 3. Interference Theory 4. Cue-Dependent Forgetting 5. Retrival Failure Two other non-main ways... a. Preexisting Schemas b. motivated forgetting (repression) *Remember the four main ways first though.

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Encoding Failure

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We cannot remember what was not properly encoded -Insufficient efforts for encoding *Lack of Attention to the presented information Attention is a limited resource. Multi-tasking does not work! ie: You ask someone for their name and you don't know who the hell they are a minute later. Is a main way we forget.

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Decay Theory

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Unused information will fade away -Memory traces: physical changes hypothesized to take place in the brain during memory formation that simply fade away over time ie: Hermann Ebbinghuas showed this with his forgetting curve- initial rapid loss followed by a more gradual loss of information as more time elapsed Is a main way we forget.

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Interference Theory

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Information in memory Disrupts the recall of other information two types: 1. Proactive Interference 2. Retroactive Interference Is a main way we forget.

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Proactive Interference

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Information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material. ie: study math then study science. then take a science test. -Sub-discipline of Interference Theory

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Retroactive Interference

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Difficulty in recall of information because of later exposure to different material. ie: study math then study science. then take a math test. *Sleep prevents retroactive inference and leads to better recall! So...Study this Quizlet night before exam and go immediately to sleep. Say no turning up. -Sub-discipline of Interference Theory

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Cue-Dependent Forgetting

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Forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory ie: You lost your keys. So you think about where you've been all day and trace the path through your head. And you remember going to the library. The library acts as a retrieval cue and you remember you left it on a desk. -Is a main way we forget.

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Retrieval Failure

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Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed. -"Tip of the Tongue" (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon ie: You ask what makes blood red? The person might say "oh i know it! it starts with a H" (hemoglobin) -Is a main way we forget.

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Preexisting Schemas

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Distorting when we remember events or other information -Self-compatible information may not be remembered -Is a way we forget but is NOT a main way.

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Motivated Forgetting aka Repression

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Sigmund Frued's idea: Conscious mind pushes unpleasant or threatening memories into the unconscious -Is a way we forget but is NOT a main way.

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Alzheimer's Disease

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Leading cause of dementia) extreme memory loss, confusion) -Declarative memory is most affected -Nondeclarative memory more spared (motor skills are fine) -Fourth leading cause of death among older adults -Simple forgetfulness progresses until total memory loss and ultimately loss of language and ability to function -Familial (early onset)- 40s-50s -Sporadic( late onset)- most common 60-70 yr olds causes unknown TREATMENT and CAUSES: Widespread deterioration of cortex and hippocampus no cure Drugs enhance function of neurons to an extent

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Amnesia

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Memory loss that occurs without any other mental difficulties. Usually caused through a blow to the head or brain tumors Aging is factor as well (Parkinson's and Huntington's disease)

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k

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NOTE: Most of these are terms, but not all of them. She obviously won't use all of these, but If you have a basic understanding of all of the items then you should be fine. Read the whole card.

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