question

CHAPTER 1

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ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE

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Consciousness (book)

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ability to communicate our thoughts and feelings to others

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Which of the following is most consistent with the proposition that consciousness is a physio function?

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Our awareness levels change with our emotional states

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Epileptic seizures can be controlled by

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cutting the corpus callosum.

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________ is a type of explanation used by scientists

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Generalization

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What philosophers/scientists attributed thought and emotion to the brain?

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Hippocrates

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Galvani's experiment showed that ________ of a frog nerve caused ________ of the attached muscle.

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electrical stimulation; contraction

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Darwin proposed the principle of

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natural selection.

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________ is the original name for the field which involves the study of the physiology of behavior.

answer

Physiological psychology

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________ are physicians trained to diagnose and to treat diseases of the central nervous system.

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Neurologists

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Recent models of the nervous system have tried to understand the brain in terms of

answer

the functions of computer programs.

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Split Brain Operation

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Cutting the corpus callosum; greatly reduces frequency of epileptic seizures

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Forms of Scientific Explanation

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Generalization and Reduction

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Generalization

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- Particular instances of behavior as examples of general laws - deduce from their experiments explained

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Reduction

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Complex phenomena explained in terms of simpler ones

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René Descartes

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- first to suggest link between mind & brain - Sense organ inform mind and the mind informs movement - Recognized pineal gland but w/ wrong function

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Luigi Galvani

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Electrical Stimulation of frog nerve caused muscle contraction - disproved Descartes (electricity not mechanics)

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Johannes Mueller

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- Doctrine of specific nerve energies - all nerves carry same basic message—an electrical impulse—we perceive messages of different nerves in different ways

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Pierre Flourens

answer

- used experimental ablation to remove parts of brains and observe animal behavior - claimed to found what controlled heart rate & breathing, purposeful movements, & visual & auditory reflexes

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Paul Broca

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- Found portion of cerebral cortex on front part of left side of brain performs funct. necessary for speech (Broca's Area) - Apply principle of experimental ablation to human brain - Observe the behavior of people whose brains had been damaged by strokes

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Gustav Fritsch & Eduard Hitzig

answer

- applied weak electrical current to the exposed surface of a dog's brain - muscles contract on opposite side of body - region = primary motor cortex

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Helmholtz

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Measured speed of nerve impulses = 90ft./sec. - neural conduction was more than a simple electrical message

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Darwin

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- Formulated the principles of natural selection & evolution - organism's characteristics have funct. significance

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Functionalism

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Characteristics of living organisms perform useful funct. Physio.mechs. of living organisms have funct. but not purpose

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natural selection

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- Species not all identical - offspring will inherit favorable characteristics

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Evolve

answer

to develop gradually ("to unroll")

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Mutations

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Accidental changes in chromosomes of sperm/egg

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Selective advantage

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mutations are harmful, offspring fails to survive or survives with some sort of defect=> dies off before reproduction of mutation

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Neoteny

answer

Prolongation of maturation of brain/head disproportionate size relative to rest of body

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CHAPTER 2

answer

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

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Soma

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Cell Body of a neuron, contains the nucleus Shape varies

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Dendrite

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Branched structure attached to soma; receives info from the terminal buttons of other neurons

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Synapse

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Junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another neuron

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Axon

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Long, thin, cylindrical structure carries info from soma to its terminal buttons

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Action potential

answer

basic message the axon carries

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Multipolar Neuron

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one axon and many dendrites attached to its soma

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Bipolar Neuron

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one axon and one dendrite attached to its soma

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Unipolar Neuron

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one axon attached to its soma Axon divides: 1st branch receives sensory info & 2nd sending info into CNS

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Terminal Button

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Bud at end of a branch of axon Forms synapses w/ another neuron Sends info to that neuron

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Neurotransmitter

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Chemical released by terminal button; excitatory or inhibitory effect on another neuron

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Cytoskeleton

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Formed of microtubules & other protein fibers, linked to each other = forming cohesive mass, giving a cell its shape

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Enzyme

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Molecule that controls a chemical reaction, combining two substances or breaking a substance into two parts

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Microtubule

answer

Long strand of bundles of protein filaments arrange around a hollow core; involved in transporting substances from place to place within cell

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Axoplasmic transport

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Active process by which substances are propelled along microtubules that run length of the axon

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Supporting Cells

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Store nutrients, support & protect neurons

question

Glia

answer

(Hall monitor) Cells also surround and isolate synapses limiting dispersion of neurotransmitters that are released by terminal buttons

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Astrocyte

answer

(Glial cell) provides support for neurons of the CNS, provides nutrients and other substances, and regulates chemical composition of extracellular fluid

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Phagocytosis

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(Glial cell- Pacman) cells engulf & digest other cells or debris caused by cellular degeneration

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Oligodendrocyte

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(Glial cell) forms myelin sheaths (possibly on multiple axons)

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Myelin sheath

answer

insulation surrounds axons; prevents messages from spreading between adjacent axons

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Node of Ranvier

answer

Naked portion of a myelinatedaxon

question

Microglia

answer

Smallest of glial cells Act as phagocytes & protect brain from invading microorganisms

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Schwann Cells

answer

In PNS that is wrapped around a myelinatedaxon, (only 1 segment of myelin sheath)

question

Blood-brain barrier

answer

Semipermeable barrier between blood & brain produced by cells in walls of brain's capillaries

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Area postrema

answer

Region of medulla where the blood-brain barrier is weak= detects poisons and initiates vomiting

question

Membrane potential

answer

Electrical charge across a cell membrane; difference in electrical potential inside and outside the cell

question

Resting potential

answer

Membrane potential of neuron when it isnt being altered by excitatory/inhibitory postsynaptic potentials; (-70 mV)

question

Depolarization

answer

Reduction (toward zero) of membrane potential of cell from its normal resting potential

question

Hyperpolarization

answer

Increase in membrane potential of cell, relative to normal resting potential

question

Action potential

answer

Brief electrical impulse that provides basis for conduction of info along axon

question

Threshold of excitation

answer

Value of membrane potential that must be reached to produce action potential

question

Diffusion

answer

Movement of molecules high -> low concentration (When there are no forces or barriers to prevent them from doing so)

question

ion

answer

Charged molecule -Cations are positively charged -Anions are negatively charged

question

Sodium-potassium transporters

answer

Protein found in membrane of all cells that extrudes sodium ions from & transports potassium ions into cell

question

Ion channels

answer

Specialized protein molecule that permits specific ions to enter or leave cells

question

All-or-none law

answer

Principle that once an action potential is triggered in axon, it is fired, without decreasing power, to end of fiber

question

Rate law

answer

how fast/the rate the neuron fires varies with the intensity of a stimulus/info being transmitted

question

Saltatory conduction

answer

Conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons Action potential appears to jump from one node of Ranvier to next

question

Postsynaptic potential

answer

Alterations in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron, produced by liberation of neurotransmitter at the synapse

question

Binding site

answer

Location on a receptor protein to which a ligand binds

question

Ligand

answer

Chemical that binds with the binding site of a receptor

question

Dendritic spine

answer

Small bud on the surface of a dendrite, with which a terminal button of another neuron forms a synapse

question

Presynaptic membrane

answer

Membrane of a terminal button that lies adjacent to postsynaptic membrane & through which neurotransmitter is released

question

Postsynaptic membrane

answer

Cell membrane opposite terminal button in a synapse; membrane of cell that receives message

question

Synaptic cleft

answer

Space between presynaptic membrane and postsynaptic membrane

question

Postsynaptic potentials can be:

answer

depolarizing (excitatory) or hyperpolarizing (inhibitory)

question

What determines nature of postsynaptic potential at a particular synapse?

answer

characteristics of postsynaptic receptors-- by particular type of ion channel they open

question

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

answer

Excitatory (depolarize) postsynaptic potential

question

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

answer

Inhibitory (hyperpolarize) of postsynaptic potential

question

postsynaptic potential (PSP)

answer

synapses inhibitory neurotransmitters open chloride channels instead of (or in addition to) potassium channels - Effect of opening chloride channels depends on membrane potential of neuron

question

Reuptake

answer

Reentry of a neurotransmitter just liberated by a terminal button back through its membrane, thus terminating postsynaptic potential

question

Enzymatic deactivation

answer

Destruction of a neurotransmitter by enzyme after its release

question

Example of Enzymatic deactivation

answer

destruction of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase

question

Acetylcholine

answer

Neurotransmitter found in brain, spinal cord, and parts of PNS; responsible for muscular contraction

question

Acetylcholinesterase

answer

Enzyme that destroys acetylcholine soon after it is liberated by terminal buttons, thus terminating postsynaptic potential

question

Neural integration

answer

Process by which inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials summate and control rate of firing of neuron

question

Autoreceptor

answer

Receptor molecule located on neuron that responds to neurotransmitter released by that neuron

question

Presynaptic inhibition

answer

- Action of presynaptic terminal button in axoaxonic synapse - Reduces amount of neurotransmitter released by postsynaptic terminal button

question

Presynaptic facilitation

answer

- Action of presynaptic terminal button in axoaxonic synapse - Increases amount of neurotransmitter released by postsynaptic terminal button

question

The process which terminates the postsynaptic potentials induced by most neurotransmitters is

answer

reuptake of the molecule into the axon terminal

question

The "all-or-none law" refers to the observation that an action potential

answer

Is produced whenever the membrane potential reaches threshold

question

The process by which molecules are evenly distributed throughout a medium is

answer

Diffusion

question

The number of neurons in the human nervous system is estimated at ...

answer

more than 100 billion

question

The _____ carries information from the cell body out to the terminal buttons

answer

Axon

question

The process of phagocytosis involves

answer

he removal of neuronal debris

question

Which of the following represents the normal order of activation in neuronal transmission

answer

dendrite -> cell body -> axon -> terminal button

question

The membranes that most commonly form synapses are the ________ and the ________

answer

Axon terminal; dendrites

question

Activation of cells within the area postrema would be predicted to produce:

answer

feelings of nausea and vomiting

question

The ________ system is comprised of the nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord.

answer

Peripheral Nervous

question

CHAPTER 3

answer

Structure of the Nervous System

question

Neuraxis

answer

Imaginary line drawn through center of length of central nervous system, from the bottom of spinal cord to front of forebrain

question

Located near or toward the head in the CNS

question

Posterior

answer

Located near or toward the tail in the CNS

question

Rostral

answer

"Toward the beak"; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction along neuraxis toward front of face Toward side of body, away from middle

question

Medial

answer

toward the middle of the body, away from side

question

ipsilateral

answer

refers to structures on same side of the body

question

Contralateral

answer

Refers to structures on opposite sides of body

question

Cross Section

answer

With respect to CNS, a slice taken at right angles to neuraxis

question

Frontal section

answer

slice through brain parallel to forehead

question

Horizontal section

answer

Slice through brain parallel to ground

question

Caudal

answer

Toward the tail; ; with respect to the CNS, in a direction along neuraxis away from front of face

question

Dorsal

answer

"Toward the back"; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction perpendicular to neuraxis toward top of head or back

question

Ventral

answer

"Toward the belly"; with respect to central nervous system, in a direction perpendicular to neuraxis toward the bottom of skull or front surface of body

question

Sagittal section

answer

Slice through brain parallel to neuraxis and perpendicular to ground

question

Midsagittal plane

answer

Plane through neuraxis perpendicular to ground; divides brain into two symmetrical halves

question

Meninges

answer

Three layers of tissue that encase central nervous system: dura mater, arachnoid membrane, and pia mater

question

Dura mater

answer

Outermost of the meninges; tough and flexible

question

Arachnoid

answer

Middle layer of meninges, located between outer dura mater and inner pia mater

question

Pia mater

answer

Layer of meninges that clings to surface of brain; thin and delicate

question

Subarachnoid space

answer

Fluid-filled space that cushions brain; located between arachnoid membrane and pia mater

question

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

answer

Clear fluid, similar to blood plasma, that fills ventricular system of brain and subarachnoid space surrounding brain and spinal cord

question

Ventricle

answer

One of hollow spaces within brain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid

question

Cerebral aqueduct

answer

Narrow tube interconnecting third and fourth ventricles of the brain

question

Choroid plexus

answer

Highly vascular tissue that protrudes into ventricles and produces cerebrospinal fluid

question

Neural tube

answer

Hollow tube, closed at rostral end, that forms from ectodermal tissue early in embryonic development; Serves as origin of CNS

question

Major brain division

answer

Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain

question

Cerebral cortex

answer

(Forebrain) Primary visual cortex (visual system); 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital

question

Basal Ganglia

answer

(Forebrain) concerned with motor control amygala, globus pallidus, caudate nucleus, putamen

question

limbic system

answer

(forebrain) concerned with emotion and motivation; interconnecting fiber bundles, hippocampus, amygdala, septum, anterior, thalamus, mammillary bodies

question

thalamus

answer

(forebrain) relay nuclei to cerebral cortex

question

Hypothalamus

answer

(forebrain) Control of automatic nervous system &endocrine system & organizes behaviors related to survival of species 4 F's: fighting, feeding, fleeing, and mating

question

tectum ("roof")

answer

(midbrain) superior colliculus (visual tectum) inferior colliculus (auditory tectum)

question

tegmentum ("covering")

answer

(midbrain) reticular formation- sleep and arousal red nucleus- part of a motor system substantia nigra- part of motor system occulomotor nucleu- control eye movement

question

cerebellum

answer

(Hindbrain) motor coordination, learning

question

pons

answer

(Hindbrain) sleep and arousal, contains part of reticular formation, and some nuclei of the cranial nerves

question

Medulla Oblongata

answer

control of vital functions: respiration, heart, muscle tonus

question

Neurogenesis

answer

Production of new neurons - Adult brain contains some stem cells that can divide and produce neurons

question

Forebrain

answer

Surrounds rostral end of the neural tube Has two major components: telencephalon and diencephalon

question

Cerebral hemisphere

answer

One of two major portions of forebrain, covered by cerebral cortex

question

Subcortical region

answer

Region located within brain, beneath cortical surface

question

Fissure

answer

Major groove in surface of the brain, larger than sulcus

question

Gyrus

answer

Convolution of cortex of cerebral hemispheres, separated by sulci or fissures

question

Calcarine fissure

answer

Fissure located in occipital lobe on medial surface of brain primary visual cortex is located along its upper and lower banks

question

Sensory Association Cortex

answer

cerebral cortex sends info here analyze info received from the primary sensory cortex Perception takes place here & memories are stored here

question

Although two cerebral hemispheres perform somewhat different functions, ________ & __________ are unified

answer

perceptions; memories

question

Neocortex

answer

Phylogenetically newest cortex, including primary sensory cortex, primary motor cortex, and association cortex

question

Limbic cortex

answer

Phylogenetically old cortex, located at medial edge ("limbus") of cerebral hemispheres Part of limbic system

question

Hippocampus

answer

(Forebrain temporal lobe) constitutes important part of limbic system; includes hippocampus proper (Ammon's horn), dentate gyrus, and subiculum

question

Fornix

answer

Fiber bundle that connects hippocampus w/ other parts of brain: mammillary bodies of hypothalamus; part of limbic system

question

Nuclei

answer

Groups of neurons of similar shape

question

Parkinson's disease is caused by

answer

Neurological disease characterized by tremors, rigidity of limbs, poor balance, and difficulty in initiating movements; caused by degeneration of nigrostriatal system

question

Projection fiber

answer

Axon of a neuron in one region of the brain whose terminals form synapses with neurons in another region

question

Much of endocrine system is controlled by hormones produced by cells in...

answer

the hypothalamus

question

Posterior pituitary gland

answer

extension of hypothalamus

question

superior & Inferior colliculi

answer

four bumps on dorsal surface of brain stem

question

Cerebellar peduncle

answer

One of three bundles of axons that attach each cerebellar hemisphere to the dorsal pons

question

Damage to cerebellum impairs

answer

standing, walking, or performance of coordinated movements

question

Spinal cord

answer

- thick as an adult's little finger - distribute motor fibers to the effector organs of the body - collect somatosensory information to be passed on to the brain

question

Spinal root

answer

Bundle of axons surrounded by connective tissue that occurs in pairs, which fuse & form spinal nerve

question

Cauda equina

answer

Bundle of spinal roots located caudal to end of spinal cord

question

Caudal block

answer

Anesthesia and paralysis of lower part of body produced by injection of local anesthetic into cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the cauda equina

question

Dorsal root

answer

Spinal root that contains incoming (afferent) sensory fibers

question

Ventral root

answer

Spinal root that contains outgoing (efferent) motor fibers

question

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

answer

brain and spinal cord communicate with the rest of the body via the cranial nerves and spinal nerves

question

Spinal nerve

answer

Peripheral nerve attached to the spinal cord

question

Afferent axon

answer

Axon directed toward central nervous system, conveying sensory information

question

Dorsal root ganglion

answer

Nodule on a dorsal root that contains cell bodies of afferent spinal nerve neurons

question

Efferent axon

answer

Axon directed away from central nervous system, conveying motor commands to muscles and glands

question

cranial nerves

answer

12 pairs attached to ventral surface of brain

question

Olfactory bulbs

answer

Complex structures containing considerable amount of neural circuitry

question

Vagus nerve ("wandering")

answer

Tenth cranial nerve that regulates functions of organs in the thoracic & abdominal cavities

question

Somatic nervous system

answer

Part of PNS which receives sensory info from the sensory organs & controls movements of skeletal muscles

question

Autonomic nervous system

answer

branch of PNS concerned with regulation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands

question

Sympathetic division

answer

expend energy

question

Parasympathetic division

answer

store energy

question

The term "dorsum" means ________, while the term "ventrum" means

answer

Back; Belly

question

_______ refers to structures that are found on opposite sides of the body

answer

Contralateral

question

key function of the ______ is to provide physical protection for the brain.

answer

skull

question

What is true of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?

answer

CSF flows from the lateral ventricles toward the fourth ventricle

question

Recent studies indicate that neurogenesis in the ________ is suppressed by ________

answer

hippocampus; stress

question

The human cerebral cortex has a grayish-brown appearance because

answer

the cortex contains many neuron cell bodies

question

What would be expected as a result of damage to the somatosensory association cortex?

answer

difficulty in naming an object the person can touch (but not see)

question

What would be expected as a result of damage to the visual association cortex?

answer

problems in recognizing an object by sight

question

Damage to portions of the limbic cortex would be expected to alter

answer

Emotion

question

CHAPTER 4

answer

PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY

question

PsychopharmacologY

answer

Study of effects of drugs on nervous system and on behavior

question

Drug effect

answer

Changes drug produces in animal's physiological processes and behavior

question

Site of action

answer

Location at which molecules of drugs interact with molecules located on or in cells of body, affecting some biochemical processes of these cells

question

Pharmacokinetics

answer

Process by which drugs are absorbed, distributed w/in the body, metabolized, & excreted

question

Intravenous (IV) injection

answer

Injection of a substance directly into a vein

question

Intraperitoneal (IP) injectionl

answer

Injection of a substance into the peritoneal cavity—the space that surrounds the stomach, intestines, liver, and other abdominal organs

question

Intramuscular (IM) injection

answer

Injection of substance into a muscle

question

Subcutaneous (SC) injection

answer

Injection of a substance into the space beneath the skin

question

Oral administration

answer

Administration of a substance into the mouth, so that it is swallowed

question

Sublingual administration

answer

Administration of a substance by placing it beneath the tongue

question

Intrarectal administration

answer

Administration of substance into rectumn

question

Inhalation

answer

Administration of vaporous substance into lungs

question

Topical administration

answer

Administration of substance directly onto skin or mucous membrane

question

Intracerebral administration

answer

Administration of substance directly into brain

question

Intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration

answer

Administration of substance into one of cerebral ventricles

question

active role in enzymatic deactivation of drugs

answer

liver

question

Dose-response curve

answer

Graph of magnitude of an effect of drug as function of amount of drug administered

question

Tolerance

answer

Decrease in effectiveness of a drug that is administered repeatedly

question

Sensitization

answer

Increase in effectiveness of drug that is administered repeatedly

question

Withdrawal Symptoms

answer

Appearance of symptoms opposite to those produced by drug when drug is administered repeatedly and then suddenly no longer taken

question

Antagonist

answer

Drug that opposes or inhibits effects of particular neurotransmitter on postsynaptic cell

question

Agonist

answer

Drug that facilitates effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell

question

Receptor blocker

answer

Drug that binds with receptor but does not activate it; prevents natural ligand from binding with receptor

question

General effects of neurotransmitters on postsynaptic membranes

answer

Depolarization (EPSP) Hyperpolarization (IPSP)

question

Acetylcholine

answer

Excretion of acetylcholine activates cerebral cortex and facilitates learning

question

Norepinephrine

answer

Secretion of norepinephrine increases vigilance and enhances readiness to act when signal is detected

question

Three systems have received the most attention from neuroscientists:

answer

basal forebrain dorsolateral pons medial septum

question

Medial Septum

answer

electrical rhythms of hippocampus and modulate its functions

question

basal forebrain

answer

activating cerebral cortex and facilitating learning, especially perceptual learning

question

dorsolateral pons

answer

play role in REM sleep

question

monoamine

answer

Dopamine norepinephrine epinephrine serotonin

question

Dopamine (DA)

answer

Neurotransmitter; one of catecholamines; very important neurotransmitter involved in learning, movement, attention, and reinforcement (pleasure)

question

L-DOPA

answer

Often used to treat Parkinson's disease because of its effect as dopamine agonist

question

Norepinephrine (NE)

answer

Neurotransmitter found in brain and in sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system -Secretion of norepinephrine increases vigilance and enhances readiness to act when signal is detected

question

Epinephrine

answer

Hormone secreted by adrenal medulla; serves as neurotransmitter in brain

question

Serotonin (5-HT)

answer

Third monoamine neurotransmitter

question

Amino Acids

answer

- Some neurons secrete simple amino acids as neurotransmitters - at least eight amino acids may serve as neurotransmitters - difficult to prove that a particular amino acid is a neurotransmitter

question

Glutamate

answer

Amino acid; most important excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain

question

NMDA receptor

answer

Specialized ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls calcium channel

question

PCP

answer

Drug that binds with PCP binding site of NMDA receptor and serves as indirect antagonist

question

GABA

answer

Anxiolytic; anxiety-reducing effect

question

Glycine

answer

inhibitory neurotransmitter in spinal cord and lower portions of brain - Removal of inhibitory effect of these synapses causes muscles to contract continuously

question

Strychnine

answer

Direct antagonist for glycine receptor

question

Nucleosides

answer

a compound that consists of a sugar molecule bound with a purine or pyrimidine base

question

Adenosine (

answer

Nucleoside; a combination of ribose and adenine; serves as neuromodulator in brain

question

Caffeine

answer

Drug that blocks adenosine receptors

question

Nitric oxide

answer

Gas produced by cells in nervous system; used as means of communication between cells

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