Physio Psych Unit 1 – Flashcards
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CHAPTER 1
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ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE
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Consciousness (book)
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ability to communicate our thoughts and feelings to others
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Which of the following is most consistent with the proposition that consciousness is a physio function?
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Our awareness levels change with our emotional states
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Epileptic seizures can be controlled by
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cutting the corpus callosum.
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________ is a type of explanation used by scientists
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Generalization
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What philosophers/scientists attributed thought and emotion to the brain?
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Hippocrates
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Galvani's experiment showed that ________ of a frog nerve caused ________ of the attached muscle.
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electrical stimulation; contraction
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Darwin proposed the principle of
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natural selection.
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________ is the original name for the field which involves the study of the physiology of behavior.
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Physiological psychology
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________ are physicians trained to diagnose and to treat diseases of the central nervous system.
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Neurologists
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Recent models of the nervous system have tried to understand the brain in terms of
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the functions of computer programs.
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Split Brain Operation
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Cutting the corpus callosum; greatly reduces frequency of epileptic seizures
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Forms of Scientific Explanation
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Generalization and Reduction
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Generalization
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- Particular instances of behavior as examples of general laws - deduce from their experiments explained
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Reduction
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Complex phenomena explained in terms of simpler ones
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René Descartes
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- first to suggest link between mind & brain - Sense organ inform mind and the mind informs movement - Recognized pineal gland but w/ wrong function
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Luigi Galvani
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Electrical Stimulation of frog nerve caused muscle contraction - disproved Descartes (electricity not mechanics)
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Johannes Mueller
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- Doctrine of specific nerve energies - all nerves carry same basic message—an electrical impulse—we perceive messages of different nerves in different ways
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Pierre Flourens
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- used experimental ablation to remove parts of brains and observe animal behavior - claimed to found what controlled heart rate & breathing, purposeful movements, & visual & auditory reflexes
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Paul Broca
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- Found portion of cerebral cortex on front part of left side of brain performs funct. necessary for speech (Broca's Area) - Apply principle of experimental ablation to human brain - Observe the behavior of people whose brains had been damaged by strokes
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Gustav Fritsch & Eduard Hitzig
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- applied weak electrical current to the exposed surface of a dog's brain - muscles contract on opposite side of body - region = primary motor cortex
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Helmholtz
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Measured speed of nerve impulses = 90ft./sec. - neural conduction was more than a simple electrical message
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Darwin
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- Formulated the principles of natural selection & evolution - organism's characteristics have funct. significance
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Functionalism
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Characteristics of living organisms perform useful funct. Physio.mechs. of living organisms have funct. but not purpose
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natural selection
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- Species not all identical - offspring will inherit favorable characteristics
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Evolve
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to develop gradually ("to unroll")
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Mutations
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Accidental changes in chromosomes of sperm/egg
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Selective advantage
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mutations are harmful, offspring fails to survive or survives with some sort of defect=> dies off before reproduction of mutation
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Neoteny
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Prolongation of maturation of brain/head disproportionate size relative to rest of body
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CHAPTER 2
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STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
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Soma
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Cell Body of a neuron, contains the nucleus Shape varies
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Dendrite
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Branched structure attached to soma; receives info from the terminal buttons of other neurons
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Synapse
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Junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another neuron
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Axon
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Long, thin, cylindrical structure carries info from soma to its terminal buttons
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Action potential
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basic message the axon carries
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Multipolar Neuron
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one axon and many dendrites attached to its soma
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Bipolar Neuron
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one axon and one dendrite attached to its soma
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Unipolar Neuron
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one axon attached to its soma Axon divides: 1st branch receives sensory info & 2nd sending info into CNS
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Terminal Button
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Bud at end of a branch of axon Forms synapses w/ another neuron Sends info to that neuron
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Neurotransmitter
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Chemical released by terminal button; excitatory or inhibitory effect on another neuron
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Cytoskeleton
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Formed of microtubules & other protein fibers, linked to each other = forming cohesive mass, giving a cell its shape
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Enzyme
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Molecule that controls a chemical reaction, combining two substances or breaking a substance into two parts
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Microtubule
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Long strand of bundles of protein filaments arrange around a hollow core; involved in transporting substances from place to place within cell
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Axoplasmic transport
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Active process by which substances are propelled along microtubules that run length of the axon
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Supporting Cells
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Store nutrients, support & protect neurons
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Glia
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(Hall monitor) Cells also surround and isolate synapses limiting dispersion of neurotransmitters that are released by terminal buttons
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Astrocyte
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(Glial cell) provides support for neurons of the CNS, provides nutrients and other substances, and regulates chemical composition of extracellular fluid
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Phagocytosis
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(Glial cell- Pacman) cells engulf & digest other cells or debris caused by cellular degeneration
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Oligodendrocyte
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(Glial cell) forms myelin sheaths (possibly on multiple axons)
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Myelin sheath
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insulation surrounds axons; prevents messages from spreading between adjacent axons
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Node of Ranvier
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Naked portion of a myelinatedaxon
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Microglia
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Smallest of glial cells Act as phagocytes & protect brain from invading microorganisms
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Schwann Cells
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In PNS that is wrapped around a myelinatedaxon, (only 1 segment of myelin sheath)
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Blood-brain barrier
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Semipermeable barrier between blood & brain produced by cells in walls of brain's capillaries
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Area postrema
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Region of medulla where the blood-brain barrier is weak= detects poisons and initiates vomiting
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Membrane potential
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Electrical charge across a cell membrane; difference in electrical potential inside and outside the cell
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Resting potential
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Membrane potential of neuron when it isnt being altered by excitatory/inhibitory postsynaptic potentials; (-70 mV)
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Depolarization
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Reduction (toward zero) of membrane potential of cell from its normal resting potential
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Hyperpolarization
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Increase in membrane potential of cell, relative to normal resting potential
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Action potential
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Brief electrical impulse that provides basis for conduction of info along axon
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Threshold of excitation
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Value of membrane potential that must be reached to produce action potential
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Diffusion
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Movement of molecules high -> low concentration (When there are no forces or barriers to prevent them from doing so)
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ion
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Charged molecule -Cations are positively charged -Anions are negatively charged
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Sodium-potassium transporters
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Protein found in membrane of all cells that extrudes sodium ions from & transports potassium ions into cell
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Ion channels
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Specialized protein molecule that permits specific ions to enter or leave cells
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All-or-none law
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Principle that once an action potential is triggered in axon, it is fired, without decreasing power, to end of fiber
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Rate law
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how fast/the rate the neuron fires varies with the intensity of a stimulus/info being transmitted
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Saltatory conduction
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Conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons Action potential appears to jump from one node of Ranvier to next
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Postsynaptic potential
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Alterations in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron, produced by liberation of neurotransmitter at the synapse
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Binding site
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Location on a receptor protein to which a ligand binds
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Ligand
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Chemical that binds with the binding site of a receptor
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Dendritic spine
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Small bud on the surface of a dendrite, with which a terminal button of another neuron forms a synapse
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Presynaptic membrane
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Membrane of a terminal button that lies adjacent to postsynaptic membrane & through which neurotransmitter is released
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Postsynaptic membrane
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Cell membrane opposite terminal button in a synapse; membrane of cell that receives message
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Synaptic cleft
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Space between presynaptic membrane and postsynaptic membrane
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Postsynaptic potentials can be:
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depolarizing (excitatory) or hyperpolarizing (inhibitory)
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What determines nature of postsynaptic potential at a particular synapse?
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characteristics of postsynaptic receptors-- by particular type of ion channel they open
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Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
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Excitatory (depolarize) postsynaptic potential
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
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Inhibitory (hyperpolarize) of postsynaptic potential
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postsynaptic potential (PSP)
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synapses inhibitory neurotransmitters open chloride channels instead of (or in addition to) potassium channels - Effect of opening chloride channels depends on membrane potential of neuron
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Reuptake
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Reentry of a neurotransmitter just liberated by a terminal button back through its membrane, thus terminating postsynaptic potential
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Enzymatic deactivation
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Destruction of a neurotransmitter by enzyme after its release
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Example of Enzymatic deactivation
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destruction of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase
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Acetylcholine
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Neurotransmitter found in brain, spinal cord, and parts of PNS; responsible for muscular contraction
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Acetylcholinesterase
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Enzyme that destroys acetylcholine soon after it is liberated by terminal buttons, thus terminating postsynaptic potential
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Neural integration
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Process by which inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials summate and control rate of firing of neuron
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Autoreceptor
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Receptor molecule located on neuron that responds to neurotransmitter released by that neuron
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Presynaptic inhibition
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- Action of presynaptic terminal button in axoaxonic synapse - Reduces amount of neurotransmitter released by postsynaptic terminal button
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Presynaptic facilitation
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- Action of presynaptic terminal button in axoaxonic synapse - Increases amount of neurotransmitter released by postsynaptic terminal button
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The process which terminates the postsynaptic potentials induced by most neurotransmitters is
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reuptake of the molecule into the axon terminal
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The "all-or-none law" refers to the observation that an action potential
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Is produced whenever the membrane potential reaches threshold
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The process by which molecules are evenly distributed throughout a medium is
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Diffusion
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The number of neurons in the human nervous system is estimated at ...
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more than 100 billion
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The _____ carries information from the cell body out to the terminal buttons
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Axon
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The process of phagocytosis involves
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he removal of neuronal debris
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Which of the following represents the normal order of activation in neuronal transmission
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dendrite -> cell body -> axon -> terminal button
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The membranes that most commonly form synapses are the ________ and the ________
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Axon terminal; dendrites
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Activation of cells within the area postrema would be predicted to produce:
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feelings of nausea and vomiting
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The ________ system is comprised of the nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord.
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Peripheral Nervous
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CHAPTER 3
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Structure of the Nervous System
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Neuraxis
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Imaginary line drawn through center of length of central nervous system, from the bottom of spinal cord to front of forebrain
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Anterior
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Located near or toward the head in the CNS
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Posterior
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Located near or toward the tail in the CNS
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Rostral
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"Toward the beak"; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction along neuraxis toward front of face Toward side of body, away from middle
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Medial
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toward the middle of the body, away from side
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ipsilateral
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refers to structures on same side of the body
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Contralateral
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Refers to structures on opposite sides of body
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Cross Section
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With respect to CNS, a slice taken at right angles to neuraxis
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Frontal section
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slice through brain parallel to forehead
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Horizontal section
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Slice through brain parallel to ground
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Caudal
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Toward the tail; ; with respect to the CNS, in a direction along neuraxis away from front of face
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Dorsal
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"Toward the back"; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction perpendicular to neuraxis toward top of head or back
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Ventral
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"Toward the belly"; with respect to central nervous system, in a direction perpendicular to neuraxis toward the bottom of skull or front surface of body
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Sagittal section
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Slice through brain parallel to neuraxis and perpendicular to ground
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Midsagittal plane
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Plane through neuraxis perpendicular to ground; divides brain into two symmetrical halves
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Meninges
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Three layers of tissue that encase central nervous system: dura mater, arachnoid membrane, and pia mater
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Dura mater
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Outermost of the meninges; tough and flexible
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Arachnoid
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Middle layer of meninges, located between outer dura mater and inner pia mater
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Pia mater
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Layer of meninges that clings to surface of brain; thin and delicate
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Subarachnoid space
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Fluid-filled space that cushions brain; located between arachnoid membrane and pia mater
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Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
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Clear fluid, similar to blood plasma, that fills ventricular system of brain and subarachnoid space surrounding brain and spinal cord
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Ventricle
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One of hollow spaces within brain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid
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Cerebral aqueduct
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Narrow tube interconnecting third and fourth ventricles of the brain
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Choroid plexus
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Highly vascular tissue that protrudes into ventricles and produces cerebrospinal fluid
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Neural tube
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Hollow tube, closed at rostral end, that forms from ectodermal tissue early in embryonic development; Serves as origin of CNS
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Major brain division
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Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain
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Cerebral cortex
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(Forebrain) Primary visual cortex (visual system); 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
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Basal Ganglia
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(Forebrain) concerned with motor control amygala, globus pallidus, caudate nucleus, putamen
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limbic system
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(forebrain) concerned with emotion and motivation; interconnecting fiber bundles, hippocampus, amygdala, septum, anterior, thalamus, mammillary bodies
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thalamus
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(forebrain) relay nuclei to cerebral cortex
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Hypothalamus
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(forebrain) Control of automatic nervous system &endocrine system & organizes behaviors related to survival of species 4 F's: fighting, feeding, fleeing, and mating
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tectum ("roof")
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(midbrain) superior colliculus (visual tectum) inferior colliculus (auditory tectum)
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tegmentum ("covering")
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(midbrain) reticular formation- sleep and arousal red nucleus- part of a motor system substantia nigra- part of motor system occulomotor nucleu- control eye movement
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cerebellum
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(Hindbrain) motor coordination, learning
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pons
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(Hindbrain) sleep and arousal, contains part of reticular formation, and some nuclei of the cranial nerves
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Medulla Oblongata
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control of vital functions: respiration, heart, muscle tonus
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Neurogenesis
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Production of new neurons - Adult brain contains some stem cells that can divide and produce neurons
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Forebrain
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Surrounds rostral end of the neural tube Has two major components: telencephalon and diencephalon
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Cerebral hemisphere
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One of two major portions of forebrain, covered by cerebral cortex
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Subcortical region
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Region located within brain, beneath cortical surface
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Fissure
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Major groove in surface of the brain, larger than sulcus
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Gyrus
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Convolution of cortex of cerebral hemispheres, separated by sulci or fissures
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Calcarine fissure
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Fissure located in occipital lobe on medial surface of brain primary visual cortex is located along its upper and lower banks
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Sensory Association Cortex
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cerebral cortex sends info here analyze info received from the primary sensory cortex Perception takes place here & memories are stored here
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Although two cerebral hemispheres perform somewhat different functions, ________ & __________ are unified
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perceptions; memories
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Neocortex
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Phylogenetically newest cortex, including primary sensory cortex, primary motor cortex, and association cortex
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Limbic cortex
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Phylogenetically old cortex, located at medial edge ("limbus") of cerebral hemispheres Part of limbic system
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Hippocampus
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(Forebrain temporal lobe) constitutes important part of limbic system; includes hippocampus proper (Ammon's horn), dentate gyrus, and subiculum
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Fornix
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Fiber bundle that connects hippocampus w/ other parts of brain: mammillary bodies of hypothalamus; part of limbic system
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Nuclei
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Groups of neurons of similar shape
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Parkinson's disease is caused by
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Neurological disease characterized by tremors, rigidity of limbs, poor balance, and difficulty in initiating movements; caused by degeneration of nigrostriatal system
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Projection fiber
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Axon of a neuron in one region of the brain whose terminals form synapses with neurons in another region
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Much of endocrine system is controlled by hormones produced by cells in...
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the hypothalamus
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Posterior pituitary gland
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extension of hypothalamus
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superior & Inferior colliculi
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four bumps on dorsal surface of brain stem
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Cerebellar peduncle
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One of three bundles of axons that attach each cerebellar hemisphere to the dorsal pons
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Damage to cerebellum impairs
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standing, walking, or performance of coordinated movements
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Spinal cord
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- thick as an adult's little finger - distribute motor fibers to the effector organs of the body - collect somatosensory information to be passed on to the brain
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Spinal root
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Bundle of axons surrounded by connective tissue that occurs in pairs, which fuse & form spinal nerve
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Cauda equina
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Bundle of spinal roots located caudal to end of spinal cord
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Caudal block
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Anesthesia and paralysis of lower part of body produced by injection of local anesthetic into cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the cauda equina
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Dorsal root
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Spinal root that contains incoming (afferent) sensory fibers
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Ventral root
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Spinal root that contains outgoing (efferent) motor fibers
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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brain and spinal cord communicate with the rest of the body via the cranial nerves and spinal nerves
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Spinal nerve
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Peripheral nerve attached to the spinal cord
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Afferent axon
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Axon directed toward central nervous system, conveying sensory information
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Dorsal root ganglion
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Nodule on a dorsal root that contains cell bodies of afferent spinal nerve neurons
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Efferent axon
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Axon directed away from central nervous system, conveying motor commands to muscles and glands
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cranial nerves
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12 pairs attached to ventral surface of brain
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Olfactory bulbs
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Complex structures containing considerable amount of neural circuitry
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Vagus nerve ("wandering")
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Tenth cranial nerve that regulates functions of organs in the thoracic & abdominal cavities
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Somatic nervous system
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Part of PNS which receives sensory info from the sensory organs & controls movements of skeletal muscles
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Autonomic nervous system
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branch of PNS concerned with regulation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
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Sympathetic division
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expend energy
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Parasympathetic division
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store energy
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The term "dorsum" means ________, while the term "ventrum" means
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Back; Belly
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_______ refers to structures that are found on opposite sides of the body
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Contralateral
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key function of the ______ is to provide physical protection for the brain.
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skull
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What is true of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
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CSF flows from the lateral ventricles toward the fourth ventricle
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Recent studies indicate that neurogenesis in the ________ is suppressed by ________
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hippocampus; stress
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The human cerebral cortex has a grayish-brown appearance because
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the cortex contains many neuron cell bodies
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What would be expected as a result of damage to the somatosensory association cortex?
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difficulty in naming an object the person can touch (but not see)
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What would be expected as a result of damage to the visual association cortex?
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problems in recognizing an object by sight
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Damage to portions of the limbic cortex would be expected to alter
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Emotion
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CHAPTER 4
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PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY
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PsychopharmacologY
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Study of effects of drugs on nervous system and on behavior
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Drug effect
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Changes drug produces in animal's physiological processes and behavior
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Site of action
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Location at which molecules of drugs interact with molecules located on or in cells of body, affecting some biochemical processes of these cells
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Pharmacokinetics
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Process by which drugs are absorbed, distributed w/in the body, metabolized, & excreted
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Intravenous (IV) injection
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Injection of a substance directly into a vein
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Intraperitoneal (IP) injectionl
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Injection of a substance into the peritoneal cavity—the space that surrounds the stomach, intestines, liver, and other abdominal organs
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Intramuscular (IM) injection
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Injection of substance into a muscle
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Subcutaneous (SC) injection
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Injection of a substance into the space beneath the skin
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Oral administration
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Administration of a substance into the mouth, so that it is swallowed
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Sublingual administration
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Administration of a substance by placing it beneath the tongue
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Intrarectal administration
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Administration of substance into rectumn
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Inhalation
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Administration of vaporous substance into lungs
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Topical administration
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Administration of substance directly onto skin or mucous membrane
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Intracerebral administration
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Administration of substance directly into brain
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Intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration
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Administration of substance into one of cerebral ventricles
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active role in enzymatic deactivation of drugs
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liver
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Dose-response curve
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Graph of magnitude of an effect of drug as function of amount of drug administered
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Tolerance
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Decrease in effectiveness of a drug that is administered repeatedly
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Sensitization
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Increase in effectiveness of drug that is administered repeatedly
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Withdrawal Symptoms
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Appearance of symptoms opposite to those produced by drug when drug is administered repeatedly and then suddenly no longer taken
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Antagonist
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Drug that opposes or inhibits effects of particular neurotransmitter on postsynaptic cell
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Agonist
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Drug that facilitates effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell
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Receptor blocker
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Drug that binds with receptor but does not activate it; prevents natural ligand from binding with receptor
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General effects of neurotransmitters on postsynaptic membranes
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Depolarization (EPSP) Hyperpolarization (IPSP)
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Acetylcholine
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Excretion of acetylcholine activates cerebral cortex and facilitates learning
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Norepinephrine
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Secretion of norepinephrine increases vigilance and enhances readiness to act when signal is detected
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Three systems have received the most attention from neuroscientists:
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basal forebrain dorsolateral pons medial septum
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Medial Septum
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electrical rhythms of hippocampus and modulate its functions
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basal forebrain
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activating cerebral cortex and facilitating learning, especially perceptual learning
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dorsolateral pons
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play role in REM sleep
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monoamine
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Dopamine norepinephrine epinephrine serotonin
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Dopamine (DA)
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Neurotransmitter; one of catecholamines; very important neurotransmitter involved in learning, movement, attention, and reinforcement (pleasure)
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L-DOPA
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Often used to treat Parkinson's disease because of its effect as dopamine agonist
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Norepinephrine (NE)
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Neurotransmitter found in brain and in sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system -Secretion of norepinephrine increases vigilance and enhances readiness to act when signal is detected
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Epinephrine
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Hormone secreted by adrenal medulla; serves as neurotransmitter in brain
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Serotonin (5-HT)
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Third monoamine neurotransmitter
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Amino Acids
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- Some neurons secrete simple amino acids as neurotransmitters - at least eight amino acids may serve as neurotransmitters - difficult to prove that a particular amino acid is a neurotransmitter
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Glutamate
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Amino acid; most important excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
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NMDA receptor
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Specialized ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls calcium channel
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PCP
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Drug that binds with PCP binding site of NMDA receptor and serves as indirect antagonist
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GABA
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Anxiolytic; anxiety-reducing effect
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Glycine
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inhibitory neurotransmitter in spinal cord and lower portions of brain - Removal of inhibitory effect of these synapses causes muscles to contract continuously
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Strychnine
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Direct antagonist for glycine receptor
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Nucleosides
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a compound that consists of a sugar molecule bound with a purine or pyrimidine base
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Adenosine (
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Nucleoside; a combination of ribose and adenine; serves as neuromodulator in brain
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Caffeine
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Drug that blocks adenosine receptors
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Nitric oxide
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Gas produced by cells in nervous system; used as means of communication between cells
