Personality Psych 4 – Flashcards

Learning: the change of behavior as a function of experience. Stimuli that occur close together in time will come to elicit the same response. Behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are more likely to be repeated. Behaviors followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to be repeated. Explain personality in terms of learning principles. Thinking about how our behaviors, what we do, is altered and changed based on experiences in life. When things happen close together we link them. If you do a certain behavior and followed by pleasant outcomes more likely to keep doing it ex: go to work get paid so keep going to work. And vice versa ex: put hand on stove hurt so don't do it again. Behaviorism has taught us how to behave and influences our personality. Learned over time to be that way Behaviorism: study of how a person's behavior is a direct result of his/her environment, particularly the rewards and punishments in the environment. Belief that the causes of behavior can be directly observed because they are in the environment - rewards and punishments in the social world. Functional analysis: the goal of behaviorism is to determine how behavior is a function of one's environment - situationism. Rewards and punishments teach us lessons on how to behave. Be able to look and observe what's doing stuff to you. What is teaching you this. Study things from the outside. Functional analysis is a goal of behaviorism. Person situationism debate. Situations is molding you, environment is rewarding or punishing you. Situation more powerful than just who you are. Empiricism is the foundation of behaviorism Behiviorists believe that all knowledge worth having comes from direct, public observation. Private introspection, of the sort practiced by Wundt, is invalid because nobody can verify it. Attempting to tap other people's thoughts, via psychoanalysis for example, is similarly suspect. The whole idea of theorizing about something we can't see - any entity within the mind - is a dubious business at best. The only valid way to know about somebody is to watch what he does - the person's behavior.

Idea that all knowledge comes from experience. Experience is the direct product of reality - reality determines personality, the structure of the mind, and behavior. In opposition to rationalism - the idea that the mind determines our experiences of reality. Implies that at birth the mind is essentially empty - John Locke: tabula rasa, or blank slate. Not born with, comes from experience. Blank slate when we are born. Mind is developed over time. Based on environment. World around us influences our personality. Mind determines experiences.

Idea that any two things become mentally associated as one if they are repeatedly experienced close together in time. Ex: lightening flashes then thunder booms, thus they become associated. Many things are associated because one causes the other. Not all things are cause & effect. Often, but not always, this closeness occurs as the result of a cause-and-effect relationship.

Organisms learn for two reasons: to seek pleasure and to avoid pain. Explains the motivation for learning and behaving, implications for values and mortality. organisms (humans) learn for 2 reasons: seek pleasure and avoid pain. Don't want something too hard. Move towards things feel good and shy away from things that don't.

The best society creates the most happiness for the largest number of people. Not just one person's happiness is more important. Puts the goal of the most happiness for the most people above all other goals, including truth, freedom, and dignity. 3 kinds of learning. Habituation a decrease in responsiveness with each repeated exposure to something. Simplest form of behavior change, stimulus must change or continually increase in order to maintain the intensity of the original response, it is possible to habituate to violence portrayed in the media and video games, winning the lottery, and being paralyzed. Get use to things, not longer notice because you've become accustomed.

The kind of learning in which an unconditional response that is naturally elicited by one stimulus becomes elicited also by a new conditioned stimulus. -physiology, Pavlov's dog, learned helplessness, stimulus-response Connections in personality

Nothing you do is going to help. Feeling of anxiety due to unpredictability can also lead to a behavioral pattern called learned helplessness.

An organisms behavior is shaped by the effect of the behavior on the environment. Thorndike's law of effect: responses followed by rewarding state will be strengthened, responses followed by aversive state will weaken. Involve voluntary things. Like flushing toilet, pressing lever for food, making your bed. Shaping also happens: start to raise criteria for reward until it is done, slowly shape them into doing this thing People aren't always aware of why they do things, hidden rewards. Something happens though even though don't make conscious connection Voluntarily do dishes, involuntary is sweating

an unpleasant consequence that follows an act in order to stop it and prevent it from happening again alternative: reward a response that is incompatible with the one you want to prevent, Dangers of punishment -> arousing emotion in both punished and punisher Difficult to be consistent Difficult to gauge severity of punishment Teaches misuse of power -powerful ppl get hurt less Motivates concealment instead of learning It's nearly impossible to use punishment correctly Rules of correct application of punishment-> 1) availability of alternative responses. Alternatives should be available and rewarded so people can learn what they are supposed to do. 2) behavioral and situational specificity. Be specific about what is being punished and when, so people learn what they are not supposed to do and what is oaky to do. Don't punish a child for being "bad," instead punish the behavior 3) apply punishment immediately after the behavior and every time it occurs. Consistency helps us understand what is being punished. 4) condition secondary punishing stimuli. Verbal warnings are usually effective and allow the avoidance of the actual punishment. 5) avoid mixed messages. Don't console directly after punishing, this can be rewarding. Lesson was to not do the thing they just did, not them to be afraid of you. One day you're in a good mood and more lenient, next day bad mood and harsh punishment. Some people spank with rulers or spoons and kids get hurt, can't see psychological harm caused

All of the behaviors an individual might do, ranked in order from most to least probable - the effect of rewards, punishments, and learning is to arrange the habit hierarchy -learning doesn't change behavior, it changes hierarchy -understand this to understand person (Dollard & Miller) -a part of social learning theory. Our experiences have influenced things we are most likely and least likely to do. Want to change behavior, need to make them rearrange their hierarchy.

Motivation: what a person wants and why they want it. Drive: a state of psychological tension that feels good when reduced -primary drive: a drive that is innate to an organism; food, water, physical comfort, avoidance of physical pain, sexual gratification, etc. -Secondary drive: positive drives for love, prestige, money, and power, as well as negative drives such as the avoidance of fear and of humiliation. Drive reduction theory:for a reward to have the power to encourage the target behavior, the reward must satisfy a need. (Implies that goal of all behavior is to satisfy every desire, which results on no motivation Drive>need>behavior>satisfaction>reinforcement

Under Dollard and Miller's Social Learning Theory. 1. An increase in drive strength increases the tendency for approach or avoidance (ex: graduation) 2. When there are two competing responses, the stronger response wins. 3. The tendency to approach increases as the positive goal gets closer 4. The tendency to avoid increases as the negative goal gets closer 5. The tendency to Avoid is stronger than the tendency to approach Avoidance gradient: as the event gets closer in time, the negative elements become more important than the positive elements.

This theory assumes that behavioral decisions are determined not just by the presence or size of reinforcements, but also by beliefs about the likely results of behavior Emphasis on decision making and expectations. Rotter's social learning theory Decisions are determined by the presence or size of reinforcements and beliefs about the likely results of behavior. Even if a reinforcement is very attractive, you are not likely to pursue it if your chances of success seem slim. Even something that is not particularly desirable might motivate behavior, if the chances of getting it are high. There's other things influencing whether we do things or not more than just rewards. How big is what I'm going to get from doing this, is it worth it, will I be able to do it? Believe we can get this thing changes if we are going to do it or not. Assumes that behavioral decisions are determined not just by the presence or size of reinforcements, but also by beliefs about likely results. Expectancy (for behavior): belief about how likely it seems that the behavior will attain its goal. Can be right or wrong, the belief is what causes action or inaction, different from classical behaviorism, in which the actual reward is what is important. Specific expectancy: belief that a certain behavior, at a certain time and place, will lead to a specific outcome. General expectancies: general beliefs about whether anything you do is likely to make a difference. We all have expectancies. Not always in touch with reality, some people think they are going to get everything and they don't, some think they will never get anything but they do. Believe we will, will influence our reality sometimes. Our belief drives us sometimes. Specific expectancy: when you were younger and wanted to ask parents for money, strategy for asking them General: just in general you believe this will always happen no matter what. Little control.

Suspicion that behaviorism did not tell the whole story Ex: Kohler's chimpanzees used insight to get reward Behaviorism began in 20th century. Thought everyone could be trained through rewards and punishment. Too simplistic this way so included learning from watching other people Social learning theory, learn by observing and through expectations of what might happen Insight: cognitive processes. Chimp uses water as a tool to get peanut Reaction to shortcomings of behaviorism. Ignores motivation, thought, and cognition. Primarily based on animal research, some aspects of learning (insight, thinking) may be more important in humans than they are in animals. Ignores the social dimension of learning, yet we often learn by watching others. Organisms are treated as essentially passive, we put animals in particular environments with specific rules, people often seek out environments and change them once they are there.

Still under rotter's theory. Locus of control: another term for generalized expectancies. People with high generalized expectancies have an internal locus of control. People with low generalized expectancies have an external locus of control. who believe they can control their own life outcomes One rat has control and predictability, the other has no control nor predictability. Learned helplessness-no matter what I do or try can't control environment so give up (with the no control rat) external locus of control Locus of control internal (one that can change it) you make things happen. General expectancies: general beliefs about whether anything you do is likely to make a difference.

Under Bandura's social learning theory Emphasizes the social nature of learning and the ways people interact with situations. Efficacy expectations: one's belief that one can perform a given goal-directed behavior. Bandura's interpretation of Rotter's expectancies. Difference is Rotter focused on the expectation of success if something is done and Bandura focused on the expectation of being able to do something in the first place. Self-efficacy: a belief about what one is capable of doing; another name for efficacy expectations. Influenced by the self-concept (ex: attractiveness and ability level). Influences motivation and performance. How to change behavior: change efficacy expectations by watching someone else accomplish the behavior (modeling) or forcing yourself to do the behavior. Observational learning: learning a behavior by seeing someone else do it.

People affect their environments while their environments affect them. Person, environment, and behavior make a triangle. The social situations in your life change, at least a little and perhaps importantly, because you are there.

The mechanisms that unfold over time to produce the effects of personality traits. Includes perception, thought, motivation, and emotion. If we understand them we have gone a long way toward understanding an individual's personality. Personality is a verb or something people do. Over time, these parts of our brains build up. Personality is something we do. If someone is paranoid, mechanisms influence that trait. About someone's ability to perceive. Are we skewing what we are perceiving.

People are predisposed to perceive the world in different ways. Part of our personalities. Priming: activation of a concept or idea by repeatedly perceiving it or thinking about it Priming: activation of a concept or idea by repeatedly perceiving it or thinking about it. We can all be primed for things, sometimes outside of awareness. Affects speed which concepts come to mind. Someone who has lots of experience with world being dangerous are primed to notice violent things. Concepts that have been activated recently, perhaps cued by something that happened today, or that are consistently activated, perhaps due to an attribute of the individual's personality, come to mind quickly, even with little stimulus. The cognitive system of a shy person may include so many memories and feelings related to social rejections and humiliation that they are recalled by the slightest hint. Priming can also come from the outside. A person who has suffered a recent financial setback might suddenly find that the prices of objects in a store are much more salient than they used to be. Chronic accessibility: the tendency of an idea or concept to come easily to mind. People have a predisposition to be primed for certain concepts. May come from evolution, temperament, or experience. Some have more chronic accessible thoughts than others. Grew up in family talk about brave vs coward people. Throughout day you ask yourself was that brave or not.

Screening out information that might make us anxious or uncomfortable. Similar to repression and denial. Research: people can have physiological reactions to emotionally charged words before they are consciously aware of them. Implication: we might be able to avoid conscious awareness of things we find threatening. Vigilance and defense. Why do some people tend to see exactly what they fear most? We have ability to defend ourselves. We screen things out to protect ourselves. Things that make us uncomfortable. Study of showing dirty vs neutral words really fast. Remember the neutral words not the dirty. Another research shows people presented with emotionally charged words started sweating even if they couldn't recall seeing anything. Maybe our brains can intercept world we are seeing and tweak it so we can't see things clearly.

Perception: people are predisposed to perceive the world in different ways, part of our personalities. The different ways in which people view the world extend even to sensory perceptions. One study noted that "dominant individuals frequently thin in terms of dominance hierarchies" personality may be related to individual differences in perception on a fundamental and even physical level. Rejection sensitivity: people can be especially aware of suggestions of impending rejection. Influences interpretation of ambiguous signals, often creates a self-fulfilling prophecy. Maybe evolutionary reason as to why we have this trait. Chronic accessibility can lead to the personality disposition of rejection sensitivity. When a person afflicted with this syndrome discusses a relationship problem with a romantic partner, anxious expectations stimulate him to scan for suggestions of impending rejection. Such a person will likely interpret any ambiguous signals as confirmation that his partner is about to walk out. Aggression: related to the automatic tendency to perceive others as having hostile intentions or as a threat. Ex: antisocial personality/conduct disorder. React in a defensive way if you sense this, way we interact with them is different. Research suggests that the memories of aggressive people may be organized around hostile themes. This may come to guide a person's perceptions and actions.

Under consciousness - determines many, but not all, actions. Not all thinking is conscious. Consciousness: whatever the individual has in their mind at the moment. Short-term memory (STM): where consciousness is located. Limited capacity: 7 U + 2 chunks Chunks: pieces of information that can be thought of as a unit. What a chunk is can vary with learning and experience. Experts use larger chunks. Cognition is another part of things. Determines a lot but not everything, and not all is conscious. Consciousness: thinking about right now. Very limited, short term memory sometimes. Memory can remember b/w 5-9 things. Maybe that's why phone numbers are mainly 7 digits. Or chunks, bigger pieces of info that are more complicated. The capacity of STM - which can be equated to the capacity of consciousness itself - is specifically limited. STM and thinking - constructs and chunks are similar ideas, and are both based on experience and culture. Consciousness and psychological health: we can potentially fill up our consciousness with the wrong things (negative thoughts/worries). Constructs, chunks, and consciousness make up your distinctive view of the world.

pieces of information that can be thought of as a unit. What a chunk is can vary with learning and experience. Experts use larger chunks. Chunking can work with ideas, too. If you know what "water pressure" is, or "existential philosophy," or even "short-term memory," these complex ideas can constitute single chunks. This is important, because the limit to STM implies that you can only think about seven things at a time, so all new ideas you have must come from the interaction of no more than seven things. Chunk psychology into different sections: personality, clinical, abnormal, social, child, older, perspectives. Useful, help us learn more.

Motivation: Goals - being aware of long-term goals can help a person make better decisions and organize short-term goals. We must constantly shift between them. Short-term goals are needed to achieve long-term goals. Being aware of connections between them gives life meaning and purpose. Idiographic goals: goals that are unique to the individuals who pursue them (aimed at fairly specific outcomes and can change over time). Current concerns (an ongoing motivation that persists in the mind until the goal is either attained or abandoned. Ex; visiting a friend, keeping a dental appointment, losing weight, saving money, and finding a job. At any given moment, you can list around half a dozen current concerns that frequently come to mind. The more a current concern is valued, committed to, and under threat, the more frequently a person thinks about it), personal projects (are what people do. Made up of the efforts people put into such goals as "going to the prom," "finding a part-time job," "shopping for the holidays") and personal strivings (long-term goals that can organize broad areas of a person's life. Can provide useful insights into what he/she is like). Need both long-term and short-term goals. Having long-term goals helps make short-term goals. And short-term goals are needed to reach long-term goals. Idiographic: aimed at things we know we want, change often because we accomplish them quickly. Nomothetic goals: universal or essential motivations that almost everyone pursues. Research on goals: (3 Goals) McClelland's three primary motivations: needs for achievement, affiliation, and power (5 Goals) Emmon's five: enjoyment, self-assertion, esteem, interpersonal success, avoidance of negative affect. (2 Goals) Kaiser & Ozer found two: work and social interaction. Nomothetic: bigger goals. Something most people want. Succeed in life, have family, be happy in life. Are there a certain number of key goals that people have in common? Some found 3 goals, another 5, and 2. Some overlap Goal circumplex. 2 dimensions. Extrinsic-outside world vs. intrinsic-what you think of yourself, things from within. About you or others Self-transcendence-help others vs. physical self-this is about me Judgment goals and development goals: judgment refers to seeking to judge or validate an attribute in oneself. Development goal is the desire to actually improve oneself, to become smarter, more beautiful, or more popular. Entity and Incremental theories: entity - believe that personal qualities such as intelligence and ability are unchangeable, leading them to respond helplessly to any indication that they do not have what it takes. Incremental - believing that intelligence and ability can change with time and experience.

Goals: the end result that one desires. Goals drive behavior by influencing what you attend to, think about, and do. Explicit goals: goals people are consciously aware of, can talk about, and describe. Can be measured with a simple questionnaire. Implicit goals: unconscious goals people may not realize they have. Generally must be measured more indirectly. Each of us have different motivators and that influences personality. Lots of things we desire, things we need in life, goals drive what we are looking for/paying attention to in environment. Our goals influence what we look for. We think about things when we are motivated to reach those goals. Explicit: actually say what it is "graduate college" Implicit: unconscious, behind the scenes. Girl out of college, wants to get a job and move out. She's not really applying for any jobs, maybe something that makes her want to stay home.

Strategies: a sequence of activities that progress toward a goal. Defensive pessimism: assume the worst will happen, and use this to motivate goal-seeking behavior. Find relief when the worst outcome doesn't happen (even when some things do go wrong) Optimism: assuming that the best will happen. Advantages and disadvantages to both strategies, but optimists are generally happier. Strategies are the efforts that help us reach goals. Strategies for writing a big paper like breaking it into smaller parts. Different types of strategies to deal with life. 2 types that people consistently use Defensive pessimism: expecting the worst, fear drives them to work hard and be prepared, in the end it's never as bad as they thought it would be. Optimism: things will turn our okay. Aren't really filled with dread and stress, less anxiety than others. In the end may do well or not. Advantages of pessimism: feel better after because not as bad Advantages of optimism: don't go through the emotional turmoil, generally happier.

People can do things without knowing why, know things without knowing that they know, and have thoughts and feelings they do not understand. The unconscious is important, we can do many things without thinking about them (digestion, pupil dilation or contraction). Consciousness is very small and life is more complicated than that. Do without knowing, people do things or want things without knowing why. Running in background. Freud thought this was important. Do things without thinking about it-that's the unconscious thought: breathing, blinking. Happen naturally. Research: people shown object very briefly before consciously aware, then shown a bunch of pictures and said pick one of these and pic the thing they saw before without knowing they saw it. Mind was primed. Dual-process models: two systems that can work at the same time. Conscious thought is reflective (slowly and largely rational) Unconscious thought is impulsive (fast, almost automatic, and sometimes irrational). Similar to idea of primary/secondary process thinking and rational/irrational thought. Two ways of thinking important. Conscious and unconscious processing. Sometimes they do cross. Conscious is slow, reflective, rational thought, connected to the ego, frontal lobe thought process. Unconscious thought with the id, fast, automatic, sometimes irrational thought. Connects with Freud's idea of primary/secondary process thinking. Ties into CEST: example of dual process, one side rational and other experiential. Thinking differently and come to conclusion somehow.

One side secondary: more conscious, analytic, slow, processing, rational, book smart Experiential: street smart, wise, holistic, fast, automatic. Need both to make good decisions. Some people lean more one way than the other. Another way to think about how our thoughts might influence our personality, how we process thoughts

Goals: the end result that one desires. Goals drive behavior by influencing what you attend to, think about, and do. Emotion is a type of procedural knowledge. Knowledge that cannot be learned or fully expressed through words, but only through action and experience. An emotion is a set of mental and physical procedures, how the body and mind respond is part of the emotion. Basic stages: appraisal, physical responses, facial expressions, nonverbal behavior, motives. Stages can happen at the same time or in a different order. Complex mixture of thought, physical sensations and motivations. Possible sources: immediate stimuli, classical conditioning, memories, and thoughts. Stages we go through. First appraise, noticing something has emotional value. Physical response could be cry, facial expressions. Non verbal behavior: jumping. Motives: happen afterwards. Sometimes happen in other orders. Sometimes emotion first before know what's happening. Hard to know what comes first. Could be from environment, hear a bell that associates with something bad, or memories that flash into your head, or thoughts have to yourself. Core emotions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust. Some emotions may be universal because they were evolutionarily advantageous. It may be advantageous to be able to perceive these emotions accurately in others. Emotions that every culture has. Maybe evolutionary advantage, babies can make these faces before being able to actually say anything. Good for a survival technique. Circumplex - Another way to represent goals is in terms of their arrangement around a circle

Three components: 1. Overall satisfaction with life 2. Satisfaction with particular life domains 3. Generally high levels of positive emotion and low levels of negative emotion

Declarative (explicit) knowledge: the facts and impressions that we consciously know and can describe. Declare out loud and say about yourself. Things you know about yourself. Answers you can give, consciously aware of. Procedural (implicit) knowledge: knowledge expressed through actions rather than words. Hidden knowledge about yourself, hard to describe in words, don't know you even have this.

Declarative self: all of your conscious knowledge or opinions about your own personality traits Procedural self: patterns of behavior that are typical for you; the unique aspects of what you do; includes ways of doing things, or procedures

According to self-discrepancy theory, you have not one but two kinds of desired selves, and the interactions between them and your actual self determines how you feel about life/ One desired self is the ideal self, which is your view of what you could be at your best. A second desired self is your ought self, which is your view of what you should—as opposed to what you would like to—be.

Self-esteem: your overall opinion about whether you are good or bad, worthy or unworthy, or somewhere in between. Self-schema: all of one's ideas about the self, organized into a coherent system. Can be assessed with S data or B data. May have important consequences for how one processes information, what we remember, speed of processing. What we expect to see, or happen. Have an idea of certain things that happen. Helps us remember things, and speed of processing that information. Think about what we know about ourselves, how we perform, what we are like. People who started to have memory problems could still tell about their own personalities.

thinking of how information relates to the self The self-reference effect explains why your most personally meaningful memories stick with you the longest. The enhancement of long term memory that comes from thinking of how information relates to the self Depends on culture- collectivistic person would connect to other ppl important to them

Ones belief about the degree to which one will be able to accomplish a goal, if one tries. Sets the limits for what we attempt to do. Growth vs. fixed mindset. Carol Dweck believes this may form the foundations of personality. All about how you think about yourself. Motivation work harder after failing. Growth mind is theorized to be better for us. Keep working at things to get better. Increase our self-efficacy. Hard work over just intelligence.

we have seen that psychologists still argue about this question of "behavioral consistency," but the evidence is clear and comes from all directions. Someone who dominates a business meeting will probably dominate a party; someone who is pessimistic about his career will probably also be pessimistic about the outcome of his wife's childbirth; and someone who has "issues" about her father is likely to bring them to bear in many of her other relationships with men.

Relational selves: patterns of social skills and styles of relating to others. Each of us have different relationship styles. Extraverted more likely to seek out others and have conversation. How they are. Relational self-schema: self-knowledge based on past experiences that direct how we relate to the important people in our lives. Deeply ingrained and difficult to change. Probably because they are set early in life. How we are in relationships that direct how we interact with others. I'm the person that always gives advice but I don't go to seek help from other people. These things are hard to change, set when we are very young. Engrained in us. Includes all of one's ideas about the self, organized into a coherent system. Can be identified using S data, B data, or both. Self schema: all of ones ideas about the self, organized into a coherent system

Self-relevant behavioral patterns that are not readily accessible to consciousness (unconscious self-knowledge). We are not aware of these characteristics, but they influence our behavior (ex: self esteem, shyness). Includes the relational self, measured with the Implicit Association Test (IAT) by testing the strength of associations in an individual's cognitive system that the person might not be conscious of. Things you know unconsciously. Sometimes conscious and unconscious match up. Research shows differences between what someone overly tells and what someone tells without knowing. Say "I rock" but with implicit association response have slower response to themselves actually rocking. Not very confident. We have attitudes and feeling of ourselves outside of our awareness. The IAT is a measure of reaction time, in which participants are asked to push one of two buttons as quickly as possible, depending on which of four concepts is displayed to them.

The individualist's need for positive self-regard may be felt less acutely by a member of a collectivist culture. Research has found that Japanese people may not have the pervasive need to think well of themselves that is so characteristic of North Americans, and the theoretical explanation that they tie their individual well-being to that of a larger group.

Self-regulation: ability to restrain impulses and keep focused on long-term goals (and maintain self-image) Information processing filter: helps us focus on, remember, and organize the information that matters to us Help us understand others: helps with empathy, by imagining how we would feel Identity: reminds us where we fit in our relations with others position in the family and community. Why do we have this self? 4 Important jobs Regulation: if we have a self, know impulses, keep focused, help maintain self-image, who we want to be seen as Information processing: filter out information, pay attention to what pertains to us Understand: need to empathize with others. Put ourselves in their shoes Identity: who we are and where we fit in society. Self knowledge: Declarative and procedural knowledge. Some theorists think each person has many declarative and procedural selves. The active self: depends on where you are and who you are with. Working self-concept: the view that the self is continuously changing. Problems with this theory: a unitary and consistent sense of self is associated with mental health; which self decides which self to be? Where does one stop fractionating the self? Bunch of different types of selves. Active self constantly changing our ideas of who we are. Working on who we are. Good mental health if we have one sense of self. Some competing (un and con) which one should be in control? How are we supposed to think of ourselves as 1 person with these different parts.

Ideal vs. Ought self: the interactions between possible selves and the actual self determine feelings about life. Ideal self: view of what you could be at your best. Discrepancy leads to depression because of disappointment at failing to achieve rewards. Ought self: view of what you should be. Discrepancy leads to anxiety because of fear of punishment. Different types of selves. Who we should be influence how we feel about ourselves. Ideal is our full potential, feel bad when we don't reach it. When we don't reach our ought self we get anxious. Ought self is what other people think we should have. Ideal how would we love to be as a person.

Ego-syntonic: do not think anything is wrong. Ego-dystonic: A person suffering from an ego dystonic state knows there is something wrong and can feel the conflict within their mind which their behaviours, thought and feelings are causing them.

Cluster A: odd/eccentric. Thinking is strange, eccentric, or delusional. An extreme pattern of odd beliefs and behaviors, and of difficulties relating to others. 1) ideas of reference. Seeing irrelevant info or events and think it's about you. News on tv is a message to you 2) Magical thinking, bizarre fantasies, believing in odd phenomenon. Abilities to sense things. 3) Strange perceptual experiences. Bodily illusions, phantom pains, phantom illusions 4) Odd speech or thinking. Explain things to you and doesn't make sense, bizarre processing 5) Suspiciousness or paranoia. Think people are out to get them, government put tracking on them. 6) Inappropriate or flattened emotions. May laugh at inappropriate times. Something is really depressing, or joyful and you don't see that in them 7) Odd, peculiar, or eccentric actions or appearance. Might have foil on head, dress in weir ways. 8) Failure to develop friendships and a lack of social ties other than to one's immediate family. Don't have friends outside of immediate family, trouble interacting with others. 9) Anxiety being around other people that does not go away. Even if they have been going or working somewhere for years, still feel uncomfortable Schizotypal, not just that they have odd beliefs, more extreme odd beliefs and lots of them. Odd behaviors. Have to have 5/9. if only 4/9 have schizotypal features. Won't notice their detachment. Still able to function. Make others uncomfortable. 3% population, more common in men than women. Consistent, relentless. Schizophrenia loses touch highly then becomes grounded, this person has just never been normal.

Cluster A. An extreme pattern of seeming indifferent to others and cold, bland style of behavior. No pleasure from social interaction; indifferent to the opinions of others; rarely experiences strong feelings, often having a restricted range of emotional expressions; these folks often live solitary lives. Cold and aloof. Don't want to be friends. Just don't like social stuff. Care less if they had a friend. Don't need people. Don't care if you like or hate them. Not to be mean, they just don't care. Limited range of emotions, live alone. Not mean, not nice, just don't notice you really. Unlikely to seek professional help.

Cluster A. An extreme pattern of suspicion, hostility, and resentment. Assume the worst of everyone, suspecting that others are exploiting, harming, or deceiving him/her without sufficient evidence. Alert for signals of betrayal, reluctant to trust or confide in anyone. Individual has extreme paranoia. Angry attitude towards world because everyone out to get you. Don't have bazar behaviors just paranoid. Think worst of people, hyper vigilant of signs of betrayal. Wont come to therapy because they don't trust clinician. Won't notice anything is wrong with them. Can be physically dangerous.

Cluster B: problems in regulating behavior and thinking lead to impulsive and erratic behavior. An extreme pattern of attention-seeking behavior and shallow but dramatically expressed emotions. Goal is to always be the center of attention. Express strong opinions without basis. Strong emotions that suddenly change or disappear. Likely to show up in therapy, more research on. Get into a lot of trouble. Regulation of behavior and mood is a problem. Extreme pattern of attention seeking behavior. Not taken seriously by others, superficial person, not much depth. Over time can't keep friends. Friends are more surface level acquaintances. May not notice relationships are ending. Person redirects attention back toward themselves. Strong opinions about controversial topics to get reaction out of people, but don't know many facts, voice opinion opposite of most people to get response. One moment feel powerful about something then switch. 2-3% population equally prevalent in men and woman. Might wear clothing that draws attention. Drive fancy car. Overly intimate with someone they actually don't know very well. Outgoing person, entertaining. Have trouble being taken seriously, are difficult to get along with, and experience serious difficulties in their personal relationships and occupational life without understanding why. Create difficulties for other people, especially those wit whom they form serious relationships.

Cluster B. An extreme pattern of arrogant, exploitative behavior combined with a notable lack of empathy. Excessive self-love; belief that one is exceptional; more extreme than the trait of narcissism; needs the admiration of others - even if it's not genuine; exploits others and expects special treatment; lack of empathy; extreme arrogance. Think they are better than others. Exploit others. Cut in line because their time is more valuable than yours. Don't want to deal with customer service person, want the boss. Name drop to make themselves feel important. Surround selves with people who will boost them. Expect special treatment. Less than 1% population, more common in men than women. Belittle others and brag about themselves; rude to service people, seeming to revel in their small degree of social superiority over waiters and cashiers. Difficult if not impossible to treat because, more than any other PD, it's ego-syntonic. Others wish them to change; they have no desire to do so.

Cluster B. An extreme pattern of deceitful, manipulative, and sometimes dangerous behavior. Illegal activities - vandalism, theft, and drug dealing. Risky behaviors - reckless driving, drug abuse, and dangerous sexual practices. Irritable, aggressive, and irresponsible; problems caused to others does not bother them. Overlaps with narcissistic. Start off as kids with conduct disorder. Illegal activity in childhood and as adult. May be really good at not getting caught, or may be constantly in and out of jail. Don't care if others are in danger. This person is employee might not care if they show up late or show up drunk. Don't know something is wrong. Get into lots of fights, not pay loans or something government after them. Little remorse. Worst 20% are psychopaths. 3.5% population, some people more obvious. Highly dangerous.

Cluster B. An extreme and sometimes dangerous pattern of emotional instability, emotional emptiness, confused identity, and tendencies toward self-harm (most severe PD) Rapid mood shifts; uncontrollable anger; self-destructive acts; self-damaging behaviors; identity disturbance; chronic emptiness; unstable relationships; fear of abandonment; confusion and feelings of unreality. Possible origins. Treat for BPD: dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT). Trouble moderating emotion, do impulsive things and leads to more damage and harm. Feel like something isn't quite right, not a full person, sense of emptiness, something is missing from your life. Origins - genetic risk factors paired with family and environment. Over time family just says they are overreacting. Individual amplifies things to get attention. DBT - invented for this disorder. Come into therapy often because of turmoil with relationships. Spin off of CBT. Learn to control emotions. Lots of mood swings, upset emotions, empty, confused/identity shifts, might have lots of self-harm. Must have at least 5/9.

Cluster C: excessive anxiety, avoidance of social contact and relationships, behavioral patterns driven by anxiety. An extreme pattern of relying on others to take care of one's needs and make decisions, combined with a biter kind of agreeableness. Submissive interpersonal style, fear disagreeing with others. Dependent - highly dependent of others. Even for most basic needs. Hard time making decisions. Needs a lot of support. Needs someone else there to confirm they are on the right path. Bitter kind of agreeableness. Still agree with something they don't like because they don't want to lose the person. Do whatever the other person wants. Rare disorder ½-1% population.

Cluster C. Fear of failure, criticism, or rejection leads to avoidance of normal activities. Expect the absolute worst from others; need constant reassurance of uncritical acceptance; deep cravings for affection and social acceptance. Lots of anxiety in this. Extreme fear of failure. Don't want to be rejected by others. More severe than social anxiety disorder, more global, affects more aspects in life. Afraid of rejection not just from other people but from friends as well. Think once someone knows who I really am they won't like me. Need reassurance too, am I okay, is my outfit okay, am I a good person. Want to be around people and loved and appreciated but being around people makes them uncomfortable. 2.5% population equally prevalent in men and women. May have trouble in their careers as well, because they seek to avoid the meetings and social functions central to the business world.

Cluster C. An extreme pattern of rigidly conscientiousness behavior, including an anxious and inflexible adherence to rules and rituals, perfectionism, and a stubborn resistance to change (not the same as obsessive compulsive disorder). Over concern with rules and details; perfectionism; workaholism; inflexibility of thinking and behaving; packrat behavior; inability to delegate; miserliness; rigidity and stubbornness - somewhat ego-syntonic. Have rigid personality, not very flexible. Stubborn, certain way doing things, their way is right and others is wrong, extreme perfectionism. Compulsions, more of a chronic and less acute disorder. They think this is normal. Might spend a long time doing something but don't get a lot done because they constantly try to perfect things. May follow rules to the point where they forget why they were there in the first place. Need to have 4 of these 8. they do the work for everyone in the group. 7) buy things that they need to buy but cheap about it. Most common, 8% of population, equally prevalent in men and women. Resembles the anal character from Freud. Difficult to treat through psychotherapy, may be because its basis is biological.

1. Negative affectivity: anxiety, depression, suspicion. Close to neuroticism (high neuroticism) 2. Detachment: tendency to withdraw from and avoid emotional contacts with others. Close to extroversion (low extroversion) 3. Antagonism: including deceitfulness, grandiosity, callousness, and manipulativeness. Close to agreeableness (low agreeableness) 4. Disinhibition: lack of self-control leading to impulsive behavior. Close to conscientiousness (low conscientiousness) 5. Psychoticism: tendency to have bizarre thoughts or experiences, and to exhibit eccentric behavior. Close to openness to experience (high openness) Advantage of these ratings - implies the differences between abnormal and normal personality lie along a continuum. Advantage of this system, according to some experts, is that it maps more or less onto the Big Five traits that encompass the domain of normal personality. Negative affectivity is akin to neuroticism in the Big Five. Big Five is one of the best supported and most accepted structures. Seen by some as the foundation of most of the variation in personality. ...more...

How does brain structure, biochemical, and genes produce personality traits? Seen in chapters 8 and 9, biological research relevant to personality is accelerating so fast that it's hard to keep up. Proponents of the other approaches no longer try to deny that biology matters. Look at the brain itself, structure, biochemical. Genes, neurotransmitters, and hormones have implications for personality. Genes are a part of what is developing traits, being happier and living longer. Damage to brain can lead to changes in personality.

Does personality exist? Friendly, angry, depressive. Big five traits.

How do we choose to see reality and how is this influenced by culture? Understand cultures Differences between cultures, and different ways people differ from each other within cultures. Research also increasingly appreciates what we as humans have in common - not just our common moral fate, but as basic psychological processes. Subcultures within cultures and so on. Some cultures overlap and some clash. Each of us has a different construal-lens that we view the world through.

What role does conscious awareness play in motivating personality and behavior? Unique beings aware of the world around us. We have free will, we can choose to do things. Behavior is determined by genetics or past experience only up to a point, then the person has to make a choice. Goes into the nature of happiness.

How do rewards and punishments in the environment influence personality and behavior? (Behavioral) social learning theories. Learn from your parents. Rewarded behaviors become more likely, and punished behaviors become less likely. Rewards and punishments are not simply imposed. Reward and punishments affect the likelihood of certain behaviors, but people can also often choose which rewards and punishments they will be subject to by choosing to put themselves in certain situations. Sibling touches stove and burns hand, learn not to touch stove. We also take an active role in environment we choose to be a part of. How are basic mental processes related to how we see ourselves? (Cognitive) newer approach, how we thing, motivations, emotions. How did personality develop? Demonstrated how perception, memory, and thought can be primed or unconsciously prompted.

What role does the unconscious play in motivating personality and behavior? Freud, unconscious mind - the importance of this is now mainstream. Part we cannot describe or explain in words, and that can occasionally surprise of even mystify us. Hidden place explains why we do what we do. Provides many examples of how people fend off perceptions and thoughts they find too troublesome to experience directly.

Based on more than material possessions or from external circumstances. Happiness does not come from being stress-free, but from seeking out and accomplishing reasonable and meaningful challenges. Happiness comes at least as much from the inside as from the outside. Shelter and safety, food and water, once we have baseline need other stuff. Limit to happiness materials can actually bring us.