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Norman Triplett

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In 1898, he investigated and published about the effect of competition on performance. considered to be the first study of social psychology

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William McDougall & E.H. Ross

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In 1908, published first textbooks on social psychology

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Verplank

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his experiments in the 1950s suggested social approval influences behavior

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Pavlov, Thorndike, Hull, and Skinner

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these psychologists established that reinforcement theory as an important perspective in studying social behavior

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What did social learning theorist do to reinforcement theories?

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challenged them

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Albert Bandura

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main figure in a social learning theory; proposed that behavior is learned through imitation

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Role Theory

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the perspective that people are aware of the social roles they are expected to fill

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Cognitive Theory

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Perception, judgment, memories, and decision making are all examples of cognitive concepts that have influenced our understanding of social behavior

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Consistency Theories

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these theories claim that people prefer consistency and will change or resist changing attitudes based upon this preference

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Fritz Heider's balance theory

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concerns with the way three elements are related. one or three positives result in harmony. zero or two positive signs result in unbalanced

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Leon Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory

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the conflict that you feel when your attitudes are not in synch with your behaviors

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Free-Choice Dissonance

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occurs in a situation where a person makes choice between several desirable alternatives

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Forced-compliance dissonance

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occurs when an individual is forced into behaving in a manner that is inconsistent with his of her beliefs or attitudes

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minimal justification effect

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when the external justification is minimal, you will reduce your dissonance by changing internal cognitions

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Daryl Bem's Self-Perception Theory

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when your attitudes about something are weak or ambiguous, you observe your own behavior and attribute an attitude to yourself

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over-justification effect

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mistakenly attributes the behavior now to external causes, rather than to dis positional causes

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Carl Hovland's Model

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attitude change as a process of communicating a message with the intent to persuade someone. three components: the communicator, the communication, and the situation

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sleeper effect

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over time, the persuasive impact of the high credibility source decreased while the persuasive impact of the low-credibility source increased

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two-sided messages

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contain arguments for and against a position

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Petty and Cacioppo's elaboration likelihood model of persuasion

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this model suggests that there are two routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route

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central route

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when issues are important to us, we listen to the persuader's argument closer and mentally evaluate the persuader's arguments by generating counterarguments

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peripheral route

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when issues are not important to us, we rely on our surroundings to make a decision more so than the persuader's argument

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William McGuire

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researched how people are able to resist persuasion

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cultural truisms

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beliefs that are seldom questioned

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refuted counterarguments

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inoculated people against attacks on cultural truisms by first presenting arguments against the truisms and then refuting the arguments

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belief perserverance

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people will hold beliefs even after those beliefs have been show to be false

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Leon Festinger's Social Comparison Theory

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this theory suggests that we are drawn to affiliate because of a tendency to evaluate ourselves in relationship to other people

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Reciprocity Hypothesis

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we tend to like people who indicate that they like us, same with dislike

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Gain-loss principle

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this principle states that an evaluation that changes will have more of an impact than an evaluation that remains constant

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Social Exchange theory

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assumes that a person weighs the rewards and costs of interacting

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Equity theory

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proposes that we consider not only our own costs and rewards, but the costs and rewards of the other person

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need complementary

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it claims that people choose relations so that they mutually satisfy each other's needs

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attractiveness stereotype

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the tendency to attribute positive qualities and desirable characteristics to attractive people

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spatial proximity

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a factor of attraction; people will generally develop a greater liking for someone who lives within a few blocks than for someone who lives in a different neighborhood

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mere exposure hypthosesis

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repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to enhanced liking for it

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Robert Zajonc

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key figure in mere-exposure research

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Altruism

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a form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to himself or herself

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Helping Behavior

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this behavior includes altruistic motivations, but also includes behaviors that may be motivated by egoism or selfishness

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John Darley and Bibb Latane

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researchers known for their work on the bystander intervention

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pluralistic ignorance

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leading others to a definition of an event as a nonemergency

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Batson's empathy altruism model

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According to this model, when faced with situations in which others may need help, people might feel distress and or they might feel empathy. These feelings are important as either can determine helping behavior.

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frustration-aggression hypothoesis

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According to this perspective, when people are frustrated, they act aggressively

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Bandura's social learning theory

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This theory claims that aggression is learned through modeling (direct observation) or through reinforcement.

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Autokinetic effect

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If you stare at a point of light in a room that is otherwise completely dark, the light will appear to move. This illusory movement is called ....

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Muzafer Sherif

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researcher that studied group conformity with the autokinetic effect

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Solomon Asch's Conformity Study

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studied group conformity through asking participants to compare the length of lines. results: subjects yield to group pressure and choose incorrect line

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Milgram

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studied group conformity. strategy used: experimenter prods subject to give electric shock to other person result: subjects shock other person ; majority continued shocking up to maximum voltage

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foot-in-the-door effect

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compliance with a small request increases the likelihood of compliance with a larger request

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door-in-the-face effect

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this effect is one in which people who refuse a large initial request are more likely to agree to a later smaller request

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Clark and Clark Doll Preference Study

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this study focuses on the ethnic self-concept among ethnically white and black children using the famous doll preference task

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Dimensions of Personal Identity

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researchers have found that the more salient the identity, the more we conform to the role expectations of the identities

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Primary effect

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this effect refers to those occasions when first impressions are more important the subsequent impressions

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Recency Effect

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sometimes the most recent information we have about an individual is more important in forming our impressions

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Attribution Theory

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this theory focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior

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Dispositional causes

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one of Fritz Heider's main categories of the attribution theory that focuses on the features of the person whose behavior is being considered

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Situational causes

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one of Fritz Heider's main categories of the attribution theory that are external and are those that relate to features of the surroundings

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Fundamental Attribution Error

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The tendency to look for personality flaws in others rather than looking for situational influences that may have caused their behavior

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Halo Effect

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the tendency to allow a general impression about a person to influence other, more specific evaluations about a person

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M.J. Lerner's just world

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belief that good things would happen to good people and bad things would happen to bad people

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Theodore Newcomb's study

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A famous experiment demonstrating the influence of group norms at a small woman's college. Many of them became more liberal due to their college community.

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Proxemics

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the study of how individuals space themselves in relations to others

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Zajonc's Theory

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the presence of others increases arousal and consequently enhances the emission of dominant responses

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Social Loafing

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a group phenomenon referring to the tendency for people to put forth less effort when part of a group effect than when acting indivdually

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Philip Zimbardo

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a social psychologist who discovered that people are more likely to commit antisocial acts when they feel anonymous within a social environment and did the prison stimulation study at Stanford

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Deinviduation

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this refers to a loss of self-awareness and of personal identity

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Irving Janis

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this social psychologist studies the ways that group decision often go awry

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Groupthinking

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this refers to the tendency of decision-making groups to strive for consensus by not considering discordant information

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Risky Shift

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this refers to the finding that group decisions are risker than the average of the individual choices

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Value Hypothesis

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this hypothesis suggests that the risky shift occurs in situations in which riskiness is culturally valued

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James Stoner

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an experiment in 1968 by this psychologist showed that the content of an item can determine the direction of the risky shift

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Group Polarization

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refers to a tendency for group discussion to enhance the group's initial tendencies towards riskiness or caution

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Kurt Lewin

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this psychologist conducted research to determine that there are three different leadership styles: autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire

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Cooperation

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persons act together for their mutual benefit so hat all of them can obtain a goal

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competition

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a person acts for his or her individual benefit so that he or she can obtain a goal that has limited availability

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Prisoner's Dilemmas

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classic method of investigating people's choices to compete or cooperate

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Robber's Cave Experiment

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study on cooperation and competition conucted by Muzafer Sherif. focused on a group of boys at a camp to determine what situations motivated the boys to cooperate or compete

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Superordinate Goals

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THese goals are best obtained through intergroup cooperation. Sherif found that joint effort on these goals dramatically improved intergroup relations

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