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What is motivation?

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The process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior

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A comprehensive approach to understanding motivation, behavior, and performance must consider three elements for the work situation

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1. the individual 2. the job and 3. the work environment and how these elements interact

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What Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis?

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A method for delving into the unconscious mind to better understand a person's motives and needs

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The Protestant Ethic was the fuel for BLANK

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human industriousness and hard work ethic

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What is self-interest?

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In the best interest of the individual

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What is theory X vs. Maslow's?

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MacGregor's Theory X is the basic needs - lower needs - of human of Maslow's hierarchy -internal needs - 1. Physiological needs - Bottom of hierarchy 2. Safety and Security Needs

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What is Theory Y vs. Maslow's?

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MacGregor'sTheory Y is the upper needs - upper three levels of Maslow's hierarchy 3. Love (social) needs 4. Esteem Needs 5. Self-actualization needs - Top of hierarchy

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External incentives

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Early organization scholars they assumed people were motivated by self-interest and economic gain

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The Hawthorne studies confirmed the

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positive effects of pay incentives on productivity and also found that social and interpersonal motives were important

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Adam Smith and the "invisible hand"

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Laid the cornerstone for the free enterprise system of economics when he formulated the "invisible hand" and the free market to explain the motivation for individual behavior. The "invisible hand" refers tot he unseen forces of a free market system that shape the most efficient use of people, money and resources for productive ends. Thus, employees are motivated by Self-Interest

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Frederick Taylor the founder of scientific management

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His central concern was to change the relationship between management and labor from on of conflict to one of cooperation. Aimed at enlarging the total profits.

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Need hierarchy

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The theory that behavior is determined by a progression of physical, social, and psychological needs by higher order needs

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Maslow's Need hierarchy

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The theory assumes that only ungratified needs motivate behavior The lowest level of ungratified needs in the hierarchy motivates behavior

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McGregor's Assumptions About People

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Theory X People are by nature indolent. That is, they work as little as possible People lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be led People are inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs People are by nature resistant to change People are gullible and not very bright, the ready dupes of the charlatan and the demagogue

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McGregor's Assumptions about People

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Theory Y People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs. They have become so as a result of experience in organizations The motivation, the potential for development, the capacity for assuming responsibility, and the readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals are all present in people. Management does not put them there. It is a responsibility of management to make it possible for people to recognize and develop these human characteristics for themselves The essential tasks of management is to arrange conditions and methods of operation so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives.

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ERG Theory

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Clayton Alderfer vs. Maslow's grouped human needs into three categories 1. existence - lowest of Maslow 2. relatedness 3. growth - highest of Maslow Alderfer's regression hypothesis helped to explain peoples frustration in meeting needs in the next higher level. His hypothesis states that people regress to the next lower category of needs and intensify their desire to gratify these needs.

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Mclellands Need Theory focuses on personality and learned needs.

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Three learned or acquired needs, called manifest needs 1. Needs for achievement 2. power 3. affiliation

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The Murrary Thematic Apperception Test

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TAT was used as an early measure of the achievement motive and was further developed by McClelland and his associates. The TAT is a projective test

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Need for achievement

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A manifest - easily perceived - need that concerns individuals issues of excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties

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People that have a high need for achievement three unique characteristics

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1. they set goals that are moderately difficult, yet achievable 2. they like to receive feedback on their progress toward these goals 3. they do not like having external events or other people interfere with their progress toward the goals Highest achievement tendencies for U.S. an individualistic culture Lowest for Japan and Hungary collectivistic societies

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Need for Power

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A manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual's need to to make an impact on others, influence others, change people or events, and make a difference in life.

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McClelland makes an important distinction between socialized power, which is the benefit of many, and personalized power, which is used for individual gain.

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Socialized is a constructive force, whereas the individual gain may be a very disruptive, destructive force.

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A high need for "power" was one distinguishing characteristic of managers rated the "best" in McClelland's research. True or False

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True - Specifically, the best managers had a very high need for socialized power, as opposed to personalized power. They have a concern for others, have an interest in organizational goals; and have a desire to be useful to the larger group, organization , and society

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Need for Affiliation

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A manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual's need to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with other people

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Over and above affiliation, power and need for achievement, Murray's manifest needs theory included the need for Autonomy

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People with a high need for autonomy like to work alone and to control the pace of their work. They dislike bureaucratic rules, regulations, and procedures.

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Describe the Herzberg's two-factor theory - he departed from the need theories of motivation

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Examination of the experiences that satisfied and dissatisfied people had at work Motivation Factor - A work condition related to satisfaction of the need for Psychological Growth Hygiene Factor - A work condition related to Dissatisfaction caused by Discomfort or Pain

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Eustress - is healthy, normal stress.

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Aligned with eustress is the new discipline of positive organizational scholarship are investing in strengths, finding positive meaning in work, displaying courage and principled action, and drawing on positive emotions at work. This new, positive perspective on organizational life encourages optimism, hope and health for people at work.

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Rather than focusing on the individual's Needs, or Alternatively on the Rewards or Punishments metered out in the work environment, this new idea in motivation Focuses on the Individuals Interpretation of Events.

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1. Opportunities rather than obstacles 2. Challenges rather than barriers 3. Energized rather than frustrated by the daily experiences of organizational life

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Jim Loehr's central tenets are the Management of Energy rather than Time and the Strategic Use of Disengagement to Balance the Power of Full Activity Engagement

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A manager's task is the help individuals learn to manage their energy so that they can experience periodic renewal and recovery and thus build positive energy and capacity for work Energy recovery is equally important to, if not more than important than, energy expenditure

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Equity theory is a Social Processes that Focuses on the Individual Environment Interaction -

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In contrast to the internal needs theories of motivation, Equity Theory is concerned with the Social Processes that influence Motivation and Behavior. Power and exchange are important considerations in understanding human behavior.

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Amitai Etzioni developed Three categories of exchange relationships that people have with organizations

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1. committed - moral ones of high positive intensity ie: religious group 2. calculated - low positive or low negative intensity 3. alienated involvements - high negative intensity ie: prison

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Social exchange theory may be the best way to understand effort-reward relationships and the sense of fairness at work as seen in a Dutch Study

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Moral principles in workplace fairness are important because failures in fairness, or unfairness lead to such things as theft, sabotage and even violence

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Calculated involvements

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Social exchange in which each party in the relationship demands certain things of the other and contributes accordingly to the exchange. Ie: Business partnerships

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Adam's Theory of Inequity

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1. Inequity in the social exchange process is an important motivator. People are motivated in situations of Inequity or Unfairness. 2. Inequity leads to the experience of Tension, and Tension Motivates a person to act in a Manner to Resolve the Inequity 3. People consider their inputs or contributions to the relationship and their outcomes the organizations contributions to the relationship then calculate the input/outcome ratio

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Adam's the theory of inequity - resolution

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Once a person establishes the existence of an inequity, a number of strategies can be used to restore equity to the situation. 1. Alter the person's outcomes 2. Alter the person's inputs 3. alter the comparison others outcomes 4. alter the comparison others inputs 5. change who is used as a comparison other 6. rationalize the inequity 7. leave the organizational situation

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Equity sensitive

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An individual who prefers an equity ratio equal to that of his or her comparison other

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Benevolent

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An individual who is comfortable with an equity ratio than that of his or her comparison other

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Entitled

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An individual who is comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of his or comparison other

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Organizational position may be more important than pay in determining the level of a person's performance expectations - True or False

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True

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One of the unintended consequences of inequity and organizational injustice is

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dysfunctional behavior Workplace injustice can trigger aggressive reactions or other forms of violent and deviant behavior that do harm to both individuals and the organization

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Whereas Equity Theory focuses on a Social Exchange Process, Vroom's Expectancy Theory of Motivation focuses on Personal Perceptions of the Performance Process -

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1. Basic notion that people desire certain outcomes of behavior and performance, which maybe thought of as rewards or consequences of behavior, and that they believe there are relationships between the effort they put forth, the performance they achieve, and the outcomes they receive. 2. Vroom's Expectancy Theory is a Cognitive Process Theory of Motivation 3. Expectancy Theory has been used in a wide variety of contexts, including test-taking motivation among students.

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Valence

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The value or importance one places on a particular reward

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Expectancy

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The belief that effort leads to performance - "If I try harder I can do better"

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Instrumentality

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The believe that performance is related to rewards - "If I perform better, I will get more pay"

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Within Vroom's Expectancy Theory framework, motivational problems stem from three basic causes

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1. A disbelief in a relationship between effort and performance 2. A disbelief in a relationship between performance and rewards and 3. A lack of desire for the rewards offered

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Moral maturity

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The measure of a person's cognitive moral development Morally mature people act and behave based on universal ethical principles, whereas morally immature people act and behave based on egocentric motivations

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Cultural differences in motivations

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Individualistic vs. collectivist cultures

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What are motivation theories?

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They may be broadly classified into 1. Internal 2. Process 3. External

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What are Internal Theories?

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Internal theories of motivation give primary consideration to variables within the individual that give rise to Motivation and Behavior. The Hierarchy of Needs Theory exemplifies the Internal Theories

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What are Process Theories?

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Process theories of motivation Emphasize the Nature of the Interaction between the Individual and the Environment. Expectancy Theories exemplifies the Process Theories

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What are External Theories?

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External theories of motivation focus on the elements in the Environment, including the consequences of Behavior, as the Basis for Understanding and Explaining People's Behavior at Work

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Employee Recognition - External Incentives

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Modern management practices such as employee recognition programs, flexible benefit packages, and stock ownership plans build on Smith's and Taylor's original theories they emphasize External Incentives

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What is a bridge approach to employee motivation?

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One bridge approach to employee motivation that considers both Psychological Needs and External Incentives is Psychological Ownership. Psychological Ownership Increased Organizational Citizenship Behavior, a key contextual performance beyond the call of duty.

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What did McGregor see as the responsibility of management under both sets of assumptions Theory X and Theory y?

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Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise, money, materials, equipment, people - in the interest of Economic Ends

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What is one consequence of McGregor's Theory Y assumptions?

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Employee participation programs. Fortune 1000 corporations use employee involvement as one motivation strategy for achieving High Performance

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Herzberg's Motivation Factors

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Job enrichment is created by motivation factors that were identified as Responsibility, Achievement, Recognition, Advancement, and the Work itself. They lead to superior performance and effort on the part of job incumbents. Salary may also be a motivator.

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Herzberg - What is a more important factor - Motivation factor or Hygiene Factor?

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The motivation factors are the most important of the two sets of factors, because they directly affect a person's motivational drive to do a good job.

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Herzberg - What are the Motivation Factors?

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1. Achievement 2. Recognition of Achievement 3. Work Itself 4. Responsibility 5. Advancement 6. Growth 7. Salary

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Herzberg - What are the Hygiene Factors?

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1. Company policy and administration 2. Supervision 3. Interpersonal Relations 4. Working Conditions 5. Salary 6. Status 7. Security The hygiene factors are of some importance up to a threshold level but beyond the threshold there is little value in improving the hygiene factors.

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What two new ideas on motivation have emerged in the past decade?

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1. One new idea centers on eustress, strength, and hope. The idea comes from the new discipline of positive organizational scholarship 2. A second new idea centers on positive energy and full engagement. The idea translates what was learned from high-performance athletes for Fortune 500 executives and managers. 3. Both ideas concern motivation, behavior and performance at work

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Adam's Theory of Inequity - In order to restore equity what must the individual consider?

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As a person formulates the strategy and tactics to restore equity, the range of consequences of alternative actions must be taken into account. Field studies on equity theory suggest that it may help explain important organizational behaviors In addition, equity theory may play an important role in labor management relationships with regard to union negotiated benefits.

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Herzberg's two-factor theory has important implications for -

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1. design work and 2. Independent research found his theory valid in a government research and development environment

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How can managers increase employee motivation?

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1. Training - increased perceptions of success because of increased ability 2. Coaching - increased confidence 3. Task assignments - Increased perceptions of success because of more experience. Managers should ensure that rewards are contingent on good performance.

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