mid. 2 – Chemistry – Flashcards
Unlock all answers in this set
Unlock answersEnzymes are the agents of _____ |
metabolic function |
Enzyme: a biological _____ |
catalyst |
Enzyme: a biological catalyst with the exception of some____ that catalyze their own splicing (Section 10.4), all enzymes are_____ |
RNAs. proteins |
enzymes can ____ the rate of a reaction by a factor of up to _____ over an uncatalyzed reaction |
increase. 10 to the 20th |
enzymes can ____ the rate of a reaction by a factor of up to ____ over an uncatalyzed reaction |
increase. 1020 |
some enzymes are so ____ that they catalyze the reaction of only one ____; others catalyze a family of similar reactions |
specific. stereoisomer |
Enzymes produce products in very _____ -> often much greater than ____ |
high yields. 95% |
Enzymes can accelerate reactions as much as 1020 over uncatalyzed rates!
Urease is a good example: Catalyzed rate: 3x104/sec Uncatalyzed rate: 3x10 -10/sec Ratio is: ! |
1 X 1014 |
D-amino acid oxidase only oxidizes ____ and not ____ . |
D-amino acids. L-amino acids |
[image] |
look at me again |
[image] |
look at me again |
The breakdown of glucose by ___ provides a prime example of a metabolic pathway. Ten enzymes mediate the reactions of glycolysis. |
glycolysis |
Enzymes are highly regulated at the ___ level the ____ level the ____ level |
activity protein gene |
Oxidoreductases Act on many chemical groupings to add or remove ____ atoms or ______. |
hydrogen electrons |
Oxidoreductases |
Spell it |
Transferases Transfer functional groups between ___ and _____ molecules. |
donor acceptor |
Kinases are specialized ____ that regulate metabolism by transferring ______ from ATP to other molecules. |
transferases phosphate |
Transferases |
Spell it |
Hydrolases Add water across a _____ , hydrolyzing it. |
bond |
Hydrolases |
Spell it |
Lyases Add ____, _____ or _____ across double bonds, or remove these elements to produce double bonds or other cleavages involving electron rearragenement.
|
water ammonia carbon dioxide |
Lyases
|
spell it |
Lyases Add water, ammonia or carbon dioxide across ____ , or remove these elements to produce ______or other cleavages involving _____ rearragenement.
|
double bonds double bonds electron |
Isomerases Carry out many kinds of isomerization: ____ isomerizations, mutase reactions (shifts of chemical groups) and others. |
L to D |
Isomerases |
Spell it |
Isomerases Carry out many kinds of isomerization: L to D isomerizations, ___ reactions (shifts of ____ ) and others. |
mutase chemical groups |
Ligases Catalyze reactions in which two chemical groups are ____ (or ligated) usually with the use of energy from ____. |
joined ATP |
Act on many chemical groupings to add or remove hydrogen atoms or electrons. |
Oxidoreductases |
Transfer functional groups between donor and acceptor molecules. |
Transferases |
Add water across a bond, hydrolyzing it. |
Hydrolases |
Add water, ammonia or carbon dioxide across double bonds, or remove these elements to produce double bonds or other cleavages involving electron rearragenement. |
Lyases |
Carry out many kinds of isomerization: L to D isomerizations, mutase reactions (shifts of chemical groups) and others. |
Isomerases |
Catalyze reactions in which two chemical groups are joined (or ligated) usually with the use of energy from ATP. |
Ligases |
Examples RXN Oxidoreductasesà Alcohol Dehydrogenaseà turns ___ into ______. |
Ethanol Acetaldehyde |
Transferasesà Hexokinase à turns _____ into _____
|
D-Glucose D-Glucose-6-phosphate |
Hydrolase à Carboxypeptidase à turns a molecule with a _____ bond into a ____
|
double single |
Lyases à Pyruvate decarboxylase à turns ___ into ____
|
Pyruvate Acetaldehyde |
Isomerases à Maleate isomerase à Turns ___ into ____
|
Maleate Fumarate |
Ligases à Pyruvate Carboxylase à Turns ___ into ____. |
Pyruvate Oxaloacetate |
_______à Alcohol Dehydrogenaseà turns Ethanol into Acetaldehyde
|
Oxidoreductases |
_______à Hexokinase à turns D-Glucose into D-Glucose-6-phosphate
|
Transferases |
______à Carboxypeptidase à turns a molecule with a double bond into a single
|
Hydrolase |
______à Pyruvate decarboxylase à turns Pyruvate into Acetaldehyde
|
Lyases |
______à Maleate isomerase à Turns Maleate into Fumarate
|
Isomerases |
_______à Pyruvate Carboxylase à Turns Pyruvate into Oxaloacetate |
Ligases |
ENZ. Optimum pH
Pepsin _____
|
1.5 |
pH Catalase _____
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7.6 |
pH Trypsin ______
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7.7 |
pH Fumarase ____
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7.8 |
pH Ribonuclease ____ Arginase ____ |
7.8 9.7 |
______ changes the rate of the catalyze reaction ( rate ___ as temperature goes up)
|
Temperature increase |
However, there is an optimum temperature, why?
• Increasing temperature will eventually lead to _______. |
protein denaturation |
Enzyme Kinetics |
Free Energy of RXN For a reaction taking place at constant temperature and pressure, e.g., in the body→ _____.
|
A <=> B |
the change in free energy is represented by this rxn ___________________ |
ΔG°= ΔH° - TΔS° |
The change in free energy is related to the equilibrium constant, Keq, for the reaction by ______________________________
|
ΔG° = -RT in Keq |
An enzyme alters the rate of a reaction, but not its _____ change or position of _______ |
free energy equilibrium |
[image] |
look at me again |
The rate of a reaction depends on its______ , DG°‡ |
activation energy |
The rate of a reaction depends on its activation energy, denoted as _____(or symbol is)? |
DG°‡ |
a enzyme provides an alternative pathway with a ____ activation energy |
lower |
left off on slide 16 on 06A enzymes I v 4.1 file |
Understand the difference between ΔG0 and ΔG0‡
The overall free energy change, ΔG0, for a reaction is related to the ________. |
equilibrium constant |
The free energy of activation, ΔG0‡, for a reaction is related to the _____. |
rate constant |
The overall free energy change, _____ for a reaction is related
to the equilibrium constant |
ΔG0 |
The free energy of activation, ____ for a reaction is related
to the rate constant |
ΔG0‡, |
[image] |
look at changes |
In an enzyme-catalyzed reaction S → P substrate, S: a ______ active site: the small portion of the _______ where the substrate(s) becomes bound by ______ forces, e.g., ______bonding, _______attractions, van der Waals attractions
|
reactant enzyme surface noncovalent hydrogen electrostatic |
enzyme-catalyzed reaction S → P Specificity is controlled by _____ - the unique fit of substrate with enzyme controls the selectivity for substrate and the product yield – all refered to as the ______. |
structure ACTIVE SITE |
[image] |
Two models have been developed to describe formation of the enzyme-substrate complex
lock-and-key model: substrate binds to that portion of the enzyme with a __________. induced fit model: binding of the substrate induces a______ in the ______ of the enzyme that results in a complementary fit |
complementary shape change conformation |
Two models have been developed to describe formation of the enzyme-substrate complex _____: substrate binds to that portion of the enzyme with a complementary shape ______: binding of the substrate induces a change in the conformation of the enzyme that results in a complementary fit |
lock-and-key model induced fit model |
[image] |
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Formation of a prodcut |
For the reaction--> A + B ---> P The rate of reaction is given by rate equation---> |
Rate = k[A] f[B]g |
Rate = k[A] f[B]g
Where k is a proportionality constant called the specific ________. Order of reaction: the ______ of the exponents in the rate equation . |
rate constant sum |
File, Enzymes I 4.1. slide 24 ?? |
[image] |
Chymotrypsin catalyzes the selective hydrolysis of peptide bonds where the carboxyl is contributed by Phe and Tyr it also catalyzes hydrolysis of the ester bond of p-nitrophenyl esters |
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Non-Allosteric Enzyme Behavior Chymotrypsin
Point at which the rate of reaction does ______, enzyme is _____ , maximum rate of reaction is _____.
|
not change saturated reached |
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Initial rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction versus substrate concentration...look at pic-->
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Michaelis-Menten Model
for an enzyme-catalyzed reaction--> (rxn)-->
|
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Michaelis-Menten Model the rates of formation and breakdown of ES are given by these equations ----> |
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Michaelis-Menten Model At the steady state the equation is--> |
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Michaelis-Menten Model when the steady state is reached, the concentration of free enzyme is the total less that bound in ES----represented by equation-->
|
[E]=[E]t-[ES] |
Michaelis-Menten Model substituting for the concentration of free enzyme and collecting all rate constants in one term gives the equation--->
where KM is called the Michaelis constant |
[image] |
KM is called the _____ _____. |
Michaelis constant |
Michaelis-Menten Model in the initial stages, formation of product depends only on the rate of breakdown of ES---represented by equa.---> |
Michaelis-Menten Model if substrate concentration is so large that the enzyme is saturated with substrate [ES] = [E]T equa.--> |
[image] |
Michaelis-Menten Model substituting k2[E]T = Vmax into the top equation gives ---> |
[image] |
when [S]= KM, the equation reduces to |
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Graphical determination of Vmax and KM from a plot of reaction velocity, V, against substrate concentration, [S]. |
[image] |
Vmax is the constant rate reached when the enzyme is completely ______ with substrate, a value that frequently must be estimated from such a graph. |
saturated |
Lineweaver-Burk Plot which has the form y = mx + b, and is the formula for a straight line . equation? |
[image] |
Lineweaver-Burk Plot a plot of 1/V versus 1/[S] will give a ___ line with slope of KM/Vmax and y intercept of 1/Vmax such a plot is known as a Lineweaver-Burk ______ ______ ______. |
straight double reciprocal plot |
Lineweaver-Burk Plot
a plot of 1/V versus 1/[S] will give a straight line with slope of _______and y intercept of ______ such a plot is known as a Lineweaver-Burk double reciprocal plot |
KM/Vmax 1/Vmax |
Lineweaver-Burk Plot KM is the dissociation constant for ___ ; the greater the value of KM, the ____tightly S is bound to E Vmax is the maximum ______ |
ES less velocity |
Lineweaver-Burk Plot _____ is the dissociation constant for ES; the greater the value of ____ , the less tightly S is bound to E ____ is the maximum velocity |
KM KM Vmax |
Lineweaver-Burk Plot
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[image] |
Turnover Numbers Vmax is related to the turnover number of _____:also called kcat
|
enzyme |
Turnover Numbers Vmax is related to the turnover number of enzyme:also called ______.
|
kcat |
Turnover Numbers Vmax is related to the turnover number of enzyme:also called kcat
|
[image] |
Turnover Numbers and KM Values for some typical enzymes |
[image] |
Enzyme Inhibition Reversible inhibitor: a substance that binds to an ____ to ____ it, but can be |
enzyme inhibit released |
Enzyme Inhibition
competitive inhibitor: binds to the ___ ____ site and blocks access to it by ____. |
active (catalytic) substrate |
Enzyme Inhibition
noncompetitive inhibitor: binds to a site other than the _____ _______ ; inhibits the enzyme by changing its ___.
|
active site conformation |
Enzyme Inhibition Irreversible inhibitor: a substance that causes inhibition that _____ _____ _____. usually involves formation or breaking of ___ ____ to or on the enzyme |
cannot be reversed covalent bonds |
__________: a substance that binds to an enzyme to inhibit it, but can be released |
Reversible inhibitor |
__________: binds to the active (catalytic) site and blocks access to it by substrate |
competitive inhibitor |
___________: binds to a site other than the active site; inhibits the enzyme by changing its conformation |
noncompetitive inhibitor |
____________: a substance that causes inhibition that cannot be reversed usually involves formation or breaking of covalent bonds to or on the enzyme |
Irreversible inhibitor |
Competitive Inhibition substrate must compete with inhibitor for the _____; more substrate is required to reach a given ________. |
active site reaction velocity |
Competitive Inhibition substrate must compete with inhibitor for the active site; more substrate is required to reach a given reaction velocity
|
[image] |
Competitive Inhibition substrate must compete with inhibitor for the active site; more substrate is required to reach a given reaction velocity we can write a dissociation constant, KI for EI |
[image] |
look at me.... |
[image] |
Structures of succinate, the substrate of succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), and malonate, the competitive inhibitor. Fumarate (the product of SDH action on succinate) is also shown. |
[image] |
Competitive Inhibition
|
[image] |
Competitive Inhibition |
[image] |
Competitive Inhibition
In a Lineweaver-Burk double reciprocal plot of 1/V versus 1/[S], the ______ (and the x intercept) changes but the y intercept does not _____.
|
slope change |
Competitive Inhibition |
[image] |
Noncompetitive Inhibition
several equilibria are involved..... |
[image] |
The maximum velocity VImax has the form |
[image] |
Noncompetitivee inhibition |
[image] |
Noncompetitive Inhibition
because the inhibitor does not interfere with binding of substrate to the active site, KM is ______. increasing substrate concentration cannot overcome ______ _______. |
unchanged noncompetitive inhibition |
Noncompetitive Inhibition |
[image] |
Noncompetitive Inhibition |
[image] |
Noncompetitive Inhibition |
[image] |
Inhibitor Type Competitive InhibitorSpecifically at the catalytic site, where it competes with ______ for binding in a dynamic equilibrium- like process. Inhibition is ______ by substrate. |
substrate reversible
|
Inhibitor Type Competitive Inhibitor Kinetic effect
Vmax is _______; Km, as defined by [S] required for 1/2 maximal activity, is increased. |
unchanged |
Inhibitor Type Noncompetitive Inhibitor
Binds E or ES complex other than at the _____ site. Substrate binding ______, but ESI complex cannot form products. Inhibition ____ _____ reversed by substrate. |
catalytic unaltered cannot be |
Inhibitor Type Noncompetitive Inhibitor
Km appears unaltered; Vmax is ________ proportionately to inhibitor _____________. |
decreased concentration |
Other Types of Enzyme Inhibition
Uncompetitive- inhibitor _____ bind to the ES complex but not to free _____. Vmax decreases and KM decreases.
Mixed- Similar to noncompetitively, but binding of I affects binding of S and vice versa. |
can E |
Enzymes with Non-Michaelis Kinetics – Allosteric Sigmoidal shape- characteristic of allosterism Again Max. velocity reached, but different mechanism |
[image] |
What Factors Influence Enzymatic Activity
Enzymes are highly regulated at the activity level
Substrate-level Control; Product inhibition
|
What Factors Influence Enzymatic Activity Rate slows as product ________.
Rate depends on ______ availability
________ effectors may be important
|
accumulates substrate Allosteric |
Feedback Control (inhibition)
The protein level Enzymes can be modified _______: reversibly or irreversibly Zymogens, isozymes and modulator proteins may play a role
|
covalently |
Translation – to make more or less ______. Protein turnover Compartmentalization
the gene level Genetic controls - induction and repression |
protein
|
[image] |
understand me |
Allosteric Enzymes Allosteric: Greek allo + steric, other shape Allosteric enzyme: an _____ whose biological activity is affected by other ______ binding to it. these substances change the enzyme’s activity by altering the conformation(s) of its _____. |
oligomer substances 4° structure |
Allosteric effector: a substance that modifies the behavior of an _________; may be an allosteric ______ or an allosteric _______. |
allosteric enzyme inhibitor activator |
Aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATCase) __________ _____________. |
feedback inhibition |
[image] |
ATCase Figure à Rate of ATCase catalysis vs substrate conc. |
[image] |
ATCase Figureà ATCase catalysis in presence of CTP; ATP |
[image] |
ATCase catalytic unit: ___ subunits organized into trimers ___ regulatory unit: 6 subunits organized into 3 trimers |
6 3 |
Allosteric Enzymes The key to allosteric behavior is the existence of multiple forms for the ___ ___ of the enzyme. |
4° structure |
Allosteric Enzymes
allosteric effector: a substance that modifies the ____ of an allosteric enzyme |
4° structure |
Allosteric Enzymes
homotropic effects: allosteric interactions that occur when several ____ molecules are bound to the ____; e.g., the binding of ____ to _____ |
identical protein aspartate ATCase |
Allosteric Enzymes
heterotropic effects: allosteric interactions that occur when ______ substances are bound to the ______ ; e.g., inhibition of ATCase by ____ and activation by ______.
|
different protein CTP ATP |
Allosteric Enzymes
________: a substance that modifies the 4° structure of an allosteric enzyme |
allosteric effector |
Allosteric Enzymes __________: allosteric interactions that occur when several identical molecules are bound to the protein; e.g., the binding of aspartate to ATCase |
homotropic effects |
Allosteric Enzymes ________: allosteric interactions that occur when different substances are bound to the protein; e.g., inhibition of ATCase by CTP and activation by ATP
|
heterotropic effects |
General Features of Allosteric Regulation Action at "another site" Enzymes situated at key steps in ______ are modulated by
_______effectors. |
metabolic pathways allosteric |
General Features of Allosteric Regulation Action at "another site"
These effectors are usually produced _____ in the pathway
|
elsewhere |
General Features of Allosteric Regulation Action at "another site"
Effectors may be feed-forward ______ or feedback ____.
Kinetics are ____ ("S-shaped") |
activators inhibitors sigmoid |
{Sigmoid v (allosteric)} versus { [S] plot (non competitive inhibition) }. The dotted line represents the hyperbolic plot characteristic of normal Michaelis - Menten-type enzyme kinetics. |
[image] |
Models for Allosteric enzymes The ______ Model
The _______ Model |
Concerted Sequential |
The Concerted Model Wyman, Monod, and Changeux - 1965
The enzyme has two conformations R (relaxed): binds _____ tightly; the active form |
substrate |
The Concerted Model T (tight or taut): binds _____ less tightly; the inactive form |
substrate |
The Concerted Model
In the absence of substrate, most enzyme molecules are in the _______ form. |
T (inactive) |
The Concerted Model
The presence of ____ shifts the equilibrium from the T (inactive) form to the R (active) form |
substrate |
The Concerted Model
In changing from T to R and vice versa, all subunits change _________ simultaneously; all changes are concerted |
conformation |
The Concerted Model Wyman, Monod, and Changeux - 1965 The enzyme has two conformations ________: binds substrate tightly; the active form ________: binds substrate less tightly; the inactive form
|
R (relaxed) T (tight or taut) |
Concerted Model A ______ protein with two subunits both change from ___ to ___ at the same time |
hypothetical T R |
Concerted Model Figureà Monod-Wyman-Changeaux model |
[image] |
[image] |
Sequential Model Koshland - 1966 the binding of substrate induces a conformational change from the ___ form to the ____ form |
T R |
Sequential Model Koshland - 1966 the change in conformation is induced by the fit of the ______ to the enzyme, as per the induced-fit model of substrate binding
|
substrate |
Sequential Model Koshland - 1966 the change in conformation is induced by the fit of the substrate to the enzyme, as per the _____ of substrate binding
|
induced-fit model |
Sequential Model Figureà Sequential model for cooperative binding of substrate to an allosteric enzyme |
[image] |
Sequential Model Figureà Allosteric activation and inhibition also occur by the induced-fit mechanism |
[image] |
Enzymes can be modified covalently
_______ Modification _______ Modification |
Reversible Irreversible |
Phosphorylation the side chain -OH groups of Ser, Thr, and Tyr can form _______ esters phosphorylation by ATP can convert an inactive precursor into an ______ ______. |
phosphate active enzyme |
Irreversible Covalent Modifications: Are known as ______
|
Zymogens |
Zymogens Zymogen: an _____ precursor of an ______; cleavage of one or more _____ ______ transforms it into the active enzyme
|
inactive enzyme covalent bonds |
Zymogens Chymotrypsinogen synthesized and stored in the _____ a single polypeptide chain of 245 amino acid residues cross linked by five disulfide (-S-S-) bonds |
pancreas |
Zymogens when secreted into the small intestine, the digestive enzyme ______ cleaves a 15 unit polypeptide from the N-terminal end to give p-chymotrypsin |
trypsin |
Zymogens _________: an inactive precursor of an enzyme; cleavage of one or more covalent bonds transforms it into the active enzyme |
Zymogen |
The Active Site 1. Which amino acid residues on an enzyme are in the ____ _____ and ____ the reaction? |
active site catalyze |
The Active Site 2. What is the spatial relationship of the _______ ______ _______ residues in the active site? |
essential amino acids |
The Active Site 3. What is the _________ by which the essential amino acid residues catalyze the reaction?
|
mechanism |
The Active Site As a model, we consider chymotrypsin, an enzyme of the digestive system that catalyzes the selective hydrolysis of peptide bonds in which the carboxyl group is contributed by Phe or Tyr
|
The Serine Proteases Trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, thrombin, subtilisin, plasmin, TPA Enzyme and substrate become linked in a ______ ______at
one or more points in the reaction pathway |
covalent bond |
The Serine Proteases Trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, thrombin,
subtilisin, plasmin, TPA The formation of the ________ ______provides chemistry that
speeds the reaction |
covalent bond |
The Serine Proteases Trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, thrombin,
subtilisin, plasmin, TPA All involve a _______ in catalysis - thus the name
|
serine |
The Serine Proteases Trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, thrombin, subtilisin, plasmin, TPA
Ser is part of a "catalytic triad" of _____, _____, ______. |
Ser, His, Asp |
The Serine Proteases Trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, thrombin, subtilisin, plasmin, TPA Serine proteases are _____ , but locations of the three crucial residues differ somewhat |
homologous |
The Serine Proteases Trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, thrombin,
subtilisin, plasmin, TPA Enzymologists agree, however, to number them always as His- 57, Asp-102, Ser-195
Burst kinetics yield a hint of how they work! |
Chymotrypsin because Ser-195 and His-57 are required for activity, they must be close to each other in the active site results of x-ray crystallography show the definite arrangement of amino acids at the active site in addition to His-57 and Ser-195, Asp-102 is also involved in catalysis at the active site |
Coenzymes Coenzyme: a _____ organic molecule that takes part in an _____ reaction and is regenerated for further reaction
|
nonprotein enzymatic |
Coenzymes organic compounds, many of which are vitamins or are metabolically related to vitamins are ______ - molecules that bring unusual chemistry to the enzyme active site
|
coenzymes |
Vitamins Vitamins and coenzymes are classified as "___ ____" and "____ _____"
The water-soluble coenzymes exhibit the most interesting chemistry
|
water-soluble fat-soluble |
Vitamins Fat-soluble Vitamins:_____,_____,_____,_____.
|
A, D, E, K |
Vitamins Water-soluble Vitamins: B1 – Thiamine C – Ascorbic acid B2 - Riboflavin B3 - Niacin B5 - Pantothenic Acid B6 - Pyridoxal B7 – Biotin B9 - Folic acid B12 - Cyanocobalamin |
Nicotinic Acid and the Nicotinamide Coenzymes aka pyridine nucleotides These coenzymes are _____ _____ ______
|
two-electron carriers |
Nicotinic Acid and the Nicotinamide Coenzymes They transfer _____ ____ ____ to and from substrates |
hydride anion (H-) |
Nicotinic Acid and the Nicotinamide Coenzymes Two important coenzymes in this class:
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ________ Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate ______
|
(NAD+) (NADP+) |
NAD+/NADH NAD+ is a ____ ____ oxidizing agent, and is reduced to ______. |
two-electron NADH |
NAD+/NADH NAD+ is involved in a variety of _____ ____ oxidation/reduction reactions. |
enzyme-catalyzed |