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the genetic information's (in living organism) location

answer

the nucleic acid

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chromosome

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an organized piece of DNA, arge structures found within cells that carry genetic instructions

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chromosomes in eucaryote (human) cells physical feature

answer

Linear

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chromosomes in procaryote (bacteria) cells physical feature

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Round

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Genes

answer

genetic instructions

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Genome

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The collection of genes

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Phenotype

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physical appearance of a characteristic, (blonde hair, blue eyes, sickle cell)

One particular bacterium may not be killed by Penicillin so it has an antibiotic resistant ___________

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Genotype

answer

the specific genetic makeup of the organism

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DNA Replication

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When a cell divides it makes copies of all of the chromosomes so the new cell will have a full set of instructions.

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Transcribe

answer

turn DNA information into RNA segments

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Translate

answer

the cells makes sense of the RNA sequence to _______ the information into directions for assembly of amino acids into a functional protein

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DNA

answer

a long chain of nucleic acids

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DNA double helix

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ladder-like shape that is twisted into a spiral shape made with sugar phosphate (covalent bond)and C and A (hydrogen bond) held together by a base bond

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DNA Replication

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separation of the two strands by the helicase, each strand used as a template to make a new strand

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DNA Gyrase

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An enzyme that unwinds the strands without making a big knot of the double helix.

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Primer

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a small premade piece of nucleic acid, puts the codon where they need to be

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Primase

answer

The enzyme that inserts the primer

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DNA Polymerase

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This inserts a T opposite of every A and inserts a C opposite every G and so on

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Ligase

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This seals up the ends of the new strands into a complete molecule

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bacteria chorosomes copy pattern

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clockwise and counter clockwise

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messenger RNA (mRNA)

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a working copy of DNA

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Transcription

answer

the cell makes a copy of the gene required and it makes the new strand of genetic information out of mRNA not DNA

question

nucleotides for mRNA

answer

A and C, There are no T's

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RNA polymerase

answer

The enzyme used when making RNA to attach the respective nucleotide

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Translation

answer

the last step in DNA Replication, the mRNA is decoded into instructions for building a protein (a specific sequence of amino acids)

question

a protein

answer

a specific sequence of amino acids

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Codon

answer

The letter sequence (A,U,C,G) in the mRNA read in groups of 3 that represents a specific amino acid with that gives 64 possible combinations

question

translation's location

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the cytoplasm

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Number of common amino acids

answer

20

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start codon

answer

AUG

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stop codon 1

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UAA

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Translation sequence

answer

a multistep process that involves Ribosomes, mRNA and tRNA.

question

Ribosomes

answer

the factories of protein production, with two halves that fit together (like an Easter egg) and sandwich a mRNA in between, and a number of openings or holes that tRNA molecules can squeeze into

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A site and the P site

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The most important openings in the ribosome

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tRNA

answer

an RNA molecule that has different amino acids attached on one end and the other end has a sequence of 3 nucleotides(anticodon) that base pair with the codon

question

Translation step 1

answer

the assembly of the two ribosome halves that cover the mRNA, the ribosome sets up on the first AUG sequence it finds, then two appropriate tRNA molecules settle into both the P site (first) and the A site (second), and the codon must match the anti-codon of the proper tRNA.

question

Translation step 2

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Once two tRNA's are settled in, the two amino acids are in the proper orientation to form a peptide bond. The first amino acid releases from it's tRNA (in the P site). The empty tRNA is released and floats away to be reused

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Translation step 3

answer

After the first tRNA is released (from the P site) the ribosome complex moves one codon to the right. This exposes the next codon in the open A site and a new tRNA can settle in. This ALSO allows amino acid 2 (from the original A site) to peptide bond with amino acid 3(in the new A site). Amino acid 2 releases (already peptide bonded to amino acid 1) and it's tRNA floats away. The process continues until a stop codon is reached.

question

Translation step 4

answer

Finally, once a stop codon is reached, the process will stop. Since there is no tRNA for the stop codon, the ribosome stalls. Eventually the whole complex comes apart and can be used again to make another protein.

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Mutations

answer

Errors in the replication of DNA or An error in the production of mRNA

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Kinds of mutations

answer

Point Mutation (Neutral Mutation, Missense Mutation, Missense Mutation)
Frameshift Mutations (tanning)

question

Point Mutation

answer

when a single nucleotide is changed to something different

question

Neutral Mutation

answer

one base is changed thus changing the codon to something different, a change in the DNA still codes for the same amino acid, the exact same protein is built.

question

Missense Mutation

answer

one base is changed thus changing the codon to something different, the codon no longer codes for the appropriate amino acid, thus resulting in a different protein

question

Nonsensse Mutation

answer

one base is changed thus changing the codon to something different, a stop codon. Now protein synthesis would immediately stop, whether the protein is finished or not.

question

Frameshift Mutation

answer

the loss or gain of nucleotides changes that codon and every other codon down the line

question

Thymine Dimers

answer

Ts bonded to Ts (not As) that bend the DNA and lead to Frameshift mutations because If not repaired they are removed leading to frameshift (melanoma)

question

Base Analogs

answer

molecules that look a bit like normal DNA nucleotides but don't follow the normal pairing rules

question

AIDS drug AZT

answer

used to make the HIV virus mutate it's DNA and hopefully kill it. Of course in addition to mutating viral replication AZT also mutates human cells at the same time. It's rather toxic but in the early days of AIDS there was nothing else in the arsenal.

question

Aflatoxin

answer

a known carcinogen that is commonly found in peanut butter and it also causes frameshift mutations.

question

Ames Test

answer

a test that can be performed to test for the mutatgenic property of a chemical using bacteria as a test organism. The test detects if a chemical an mutate DNA.

question

Histidine

answer

a required nutrient

question

Anticodon

answer

the matching set of letters to pair with the codon on mRNA

question

The gene for ___ production has a point mutation

answer

His-

question

Positive Ames Test

answer

shows that the suject is a mutagen

question

There is a ___% correlation between mutagens and carcinogens

answer

90

question

Recombination

answer

when an organism incorporates some DNA from another source

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Recombinant DNA

answer

two bits of DNA are merged to become a new piece of information. Its an efficient way to gain an advantage as the new characteristic is simply adopted

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Transformation

answer

a bit of DNA gets incorporated into the bacterial chromosome from the environment

question

Griffith's transformation experiment

answer

showed transformation and observed phenotype changes as bacteria picked up DNA from the enviorment

question

Capsules

answer

make it difficult for the Immune system to fight off an infection

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Transduction

answer

genes to be transferred from one bacterial cell to another but a virus infects a bacterium and some bacterial DNA captured inside

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Bacteriophage (or just Phage)

answer

a bacterial virus

question

Viruses

answer

cannot replicate on their own and infect a host cell and take over the replicating machinery of the cell to make baby viruses.

question

Conjugation

answer

some DNA from one bacterium is transferred directly to another bacterium through bacterial sex and recombinant Fertility plasmids

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Plasmids

answer

extra bits of DNA found in circular and an ori site just like the bacterial chromosome which mean they get replicated each time the chromosome does before cell division

question

Fertility or F Plasmid

answer

contains genes that allow for the formation of sex pili

question

Hfr (high frequency recombinant)

answer

the Fertility plasmid inserts itself into the bacterial chromosome

question

Conjugation

answer

when the plasmid extracts itself from the chromosome it takes a bit of the bacterial chromosome with it. Then when it passes a copy to another F- cell, the cell not only gets the F plasmid it also gets a bit of DNA from the first cells as well.

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Selective breeding programs

answer

considered something of a science even though the methods were crude and the results did not always turn out as expected.

question

Gregor Mendel

answer

discovered genetic work on plants

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Watson and Crick

answer

discovered the description of DNA itself

question

Polymerase Chain Reaction Results & Requirements

answer

thousands of exact copies of the initial sample of DNA. It has increased the speed by which scientists can analyze DNA sequences. only needs a few cells at the end of a hair follicle or a drop of blood provide

question

Polymerase Chain Reaction

answer

a way to make more DNA when u only have a drop of blood, heats up DNA to split and a thermofile enzyme and DNA polyermase are used

question

Electrophoresis

answer

sets of DNA fragments being separated according to size

question

Human Genome Project

answer

a general map of the 20,000 or more genes found in humans from the late 80’s

question

Restriction enzymes (restriction endonucleases)

answer

enzyme naturally found in bacteria which chop up DNA for recycling of nucleotides

question

sticky ends

answer

a staggered but rather than a straight clean cut across both strands leaving a small part of single stranded DNA exposed

question

Recombinant DNA

answer

new combination of multiple strands of DNA

question

DNA Fingerprinting

answer

restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA into a collection of different sized pieces

question

bacteria component that makes it an excellent tool of genetic engineering

answer

plasmids

question

Plasmids genes

answer

Antibiotic resistance, pathogenic traits and the ability to spread the plasmid

question

Do all bacteria have plasmids?

answer

No, Some bacteria can even contain multiple plasmids while others don’t have any at all.

question

Vector

answer

a vehicle we create that will deliver a gene to a target cell

question

How does the vector plasmid get into a cell?

answer

an electric current allows it to get through the cell wall.

question

Plant Engineering

answer

Using gene transfer techniques it is possible to create new varieties of plants

question

RoundUp

answer

used to kill all insects

question

Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt toxin)

answer

kills insects, not FDA approved

question

goals of plant engineering

answer

to provide seeds of plants that can grow in harsh conditions, and developing new plants that are easier to grow for a farmer, particularly those in poor countries where famine is a real problem and modern farming practices are rare.

question

Agrobacterium tumefaciens

answer

a bacterium that has a plasmid that naturally inserts DNA into a plant cell but causes plant tumors and is considered a big problem in agriculture

question

Human Engineering: Gene Therapy

answer

The permanent correction of a genetic condition

question

Gene therapy

answer

the insertion of genes that correct the function of mutated ones

question

Can we use plasmids for human gene therapy?

answer

No, Eucaryotic cells will not function with a plasmid

question

How are genes transfered in human gene theraphy?

answer

Viruses attach to host cells and insert their genetic material

question

Why the interest in GMO's?

answer

agriculture, We need to created more food because the world's population is growing

question

transgenic plant

answer

plants have been engineered to contain genes from other plants or even other organisms altogether in order to create traits in a target organism that would not be possible with traditional selective breeding methods

question

How does the Bt toxin work?

answer

it attacks and destroys insects

question

risks associated with Genetically Modified organisms

answer

changes to the environment if GMO's were released into wild populations of plants

question

first genetically modified food

answer

Flavr Savr tomato in 1994

question

Golden rice

answer

by Peter Beyer and Ingo Potrykus. A gene for beta carotene production was transferred from a daffodil into a ____ plant

question

"Natural" breeding

answer

2 organisms may result in new phenotype, and will result in the thousands of genotypic changes

question

GMO

answer

results in change of a single genotype, will give the desired phenotype, and genes are well characterized and function is well known

question

Erythropoetin

answer

a hormone that controlls the production of Red Blood cells. The more blood cells the more oxygen which means muscle won't fatigue as easily

question

Gene doping

answer

the abuse of legitimate medical gene therapy treatments that modify a person's genetic makeup

question

Myostatin

answer

a hormone that controls how big a muscle can gets

question

stop codon 2

answer

UAG

question

stop codon

answer

UGA

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