Micro Test Test Questions – Flashcards
Unlock all answers in this set
Unlock answersquestion
| Linnaeus |
answer
| father of taxonomy, introduced taxonomy concept, 2 kingdom scheme, taxonomic hierarchies, use of genus and species name |
question
| two kingdom scheme |
answer
| animalia, plantae Linnaeus ignored microorganisms (chaos group, not in gods plan) |
question
| hierarchy |
answer
| Kingdom, Phyla or Division, class, order families, genera, species |
question
| Shapes |
answer
| Bacillus- rod or cylindrical megaterium- big beast coccus- spherical staph -grapes (cluster after division) aureua - golden pigment |
question
| three kingdom scheme |
answer
| Animalia, plantae, and protista |
question
| Four Kingdom Scheme |
answer
| Animalia plantae, monera, protista |
question
| Five kingdom scheme |
answer
| animalia, plantae, protista, monera, fungi |
question
| Archaebacteria |
answer
| prokaryotic in extreme environments, very diff. from eubacteria in cell walls and ribosomes, sequence analysis revealed difference in other bactera and eukaryotic organisms |
question
| rrna analysis classification |
answer
| 3 superkingdoms: bacteria, archaea, eukarya. Archae and Eukary can mix ribosomes. |
question
| Prokary vs Eukary |
answer
| Prokary are smaller (1-2 molecular chronometers in length) than eukary (>20 molecular chronometers) |
question
| nm to micrometers to milimeters to meter |
answer
| 1000 nm = 1 micrometer 1000 micrometers = 1 mm 1000 mm = 1 meter 1000000 micrometers= 1 meter eye can see .2 milimeters |
question
| thiomargarita namibiensis |
answer
| anaerobic bacterium, found in marine sediment in Africa, oxidizes sulfur for energy and reduce nitrate for final electron acceptor. 200-750 micrometers in diameter. looks like string of pearls. |
question
| compartmentalization |
answer
| eukary much more complex than prokary, with more internal membranous structures. Eukary have true nucleus with double membrane that separates genetic material from cytoplasm. Pores allow exchange between cyto and nucleus. Prokary have no membrane bound nucleus, have region where DNA is located --> nucleoid. |
question
| ribosomes |
answer
| synthesize in the nucleus |
question
| Nucleolus |
answer
| location of genes for production of rRNAs. small region in nucleus of eukary. ribosomal proteins synthesized in cyto are imported into nucleolus and associate with rrnas there to make mature ribosomes. rRNA must go from cyto to nucleolus to cyto to make proteins. Prokary do not have nucleolus. |
question
| chromosomes |
answer
| eukaryotic chromosome= linear dna associated with positive proteins called histones (regulation and protection). have more than one chromosome per cell, Prokary chromosomes are generally circular with basic proteins associated. they usually have just one chromosome per cell except when they're about to divide. |
question
| Mitosis (karyokinesis: only eukaryotes) |
answer
| karyokinese: splitting of nucleus, chromosome replication and nuclear division. |
question
| cytokinesis |
answer
| cell division, usually mitosis and karyokinese happen together, but not always. |
question
| complex internal membrane system |
answer
| eukary cells have this (golgi, er, lysosomes) |
question
| ER |
answer
| membrane system in continuum with nuclear membrane: rough has ribosomes and involved in protein production. smooth = lipid synthesis and coordinated movement of materials in cell |
question
| Golgi |
answer
| flattened membranous sacs in continuous network with ER. involved in packaging, sorting, and secreting proteins and wall/membrane components |
question
| golgi (2) |
answer
| materials transported across cell are packaged in secretory vesicles. exocytosis= release contents outside of cell. golgi also give rise to lysosomes --> membrane bound structures than contain digestive enzymes. they fuse with food vacuoles and allow digestion brought in by endocytosis. Golgi also adds sugar to proteins --> glycosylation. |
question
| Cytosis |
answer
| transporting in or out; only eukaryotic cells. materials never pass through membrane, exo: materials released from celll through secretory vesicles. Endo= materials brough in through food vacuoles; phagocytosis (particulate matter) and pinocytosis (fluid) |
question
| intracellular digestion |
answer
| lysosomes fuse with food vacuoles to begin digestive proces |
question
| eukaryotic cytoskeleton |
answer
| microtubules (proteins abour 25 nm in diameter) made of tubulin. maintain shape and help separate chromosome during nuclear division --> also in structure and function of flagella and cilia. Microfilaments are 10 nm in diameter and are made of actin (contractile), attached to cell membrane and help in movement. |
question
| prokaryotic cytoskeleton |
answer
| have tubulin and actin like filaments; FtsZ= plan of division; MreB= cytoskeletal filaments that form cage (specifies width of rod and curved bacteria) Crescentic= curvature of curved bacteria; vibroid= all three; cocci= ftsz; rod= ftsz and mreb |
question
| ribosomes |
answer
| sites of protein synthesis- measured in ultracentrifuge. Prokary have smaller (70S) ribosomes and Eukary have larger (80 S) ribosomes. mito and chloroplasts have 70S as well. |
question
| membrane bound organelles |
answer
| eukary have mitochondria (exception for anaerobic in metabolism) Mito contains enzymes for TCA cycle and fatty acid oxidation --> generates ATP. plants and algae have chloroplasts that do this through photosythesis. PROKARYOTES DO NOT CONTAIN MITO OR CHLORO. |
question
| endosymbiotic theory |
answer
| margulus: small living in big, beneficial for both. Eukary thought to be chimeras formed by engulfment of smaller cells; mito and chloro are though to be descendents of prokary that now line as internal symbionts in eukary. Also thought that eukary flagella were once free living similar to spirochetes (used in mixotrichia) |
question
| evidence for endosymbiotic theory |
answer
| mito and chloro same size as bacteria; contain their own circular DNA that encode for production of rrnas trnas and some et proteins. Mito and Chloro have 70S ribosomes, and are self replication through binary fission. Will not regenerate by host cell if lost. And rrna sequences are related to prokaryotes. |
question
| horizontal gene transfer and vertical gene transfer |
answer
| horizontal= from organism to organism; vertical from parent to offspring. |
question
| flagella |
answer
| eukary flagella: microscopic, membrane enclosed cylinders, complex of 20 microtubules (9+2 arrangement) 200 nm in diameter. function though waving. Prokary flagella= submicroscopic protein fibers about 20 nm in diameter than spin like propeller. |
question
| cell walls |
answer
| eukary cell walls: composed of chitin or cellulose; NEVER contain PG. Prokary: contain PG; Archae: most have cell walls made of other rigid molecules like psuedoPG, proteins, glycoproteins, and polysaccharides. |
question
| membrane sterols |
answer
| eukary membranes contain sterols (planar molecules for stabillization) such as cholesterol. Prokary: sterol like called hopanoids. Mycoplasms (bacteria group) do not contain sterols or cell walls and live as parasites on eukary cells which make the sterols for the bacteria --> make them stronger. |
question
| hydrocarbons |
answer
| made if carbon and hydrogen; used for Energy and carbon source. |
question
| alcohols |
answer
| contain c,h,o. significance: can be end products of metabolism, many biomolecules contain alcohols, glycerol is component in fats used to form membranes. |
question
| Aldehydes and ketones |
answer
| aldehydes: contain c,h,o. ex. ethanol; ketones: c,h,o, acetone. Significance: carbs are usually one of these or derivatives. |
question
| organic acids |
answer
| contain c,h,o. carboxylic acids can dissociate --> donate a proton. ex. acetic acid to acetate (inside cell) and pyruvic acid to pyruvate. Significance: important intermediates and end products of metabolism. ex. Fatty acids --> used in formation of fats along with glycerol |
question
| esters |
answer
| contain c, h, o. formed by condensation rxns (dehydration synthesis specifically) betwen alcohols and carboxylic acids. Significance: fats are esters. |
question
| condensation rxns |
answer
| 2 molecules joined into 1 with loss of a simple molecule; water = dehydration synthesis. when nucleotides are condensed it's not dehydration. |
question
| hydrolysis |
answer
| opposite of dehydration; can break what condensation rxns make |
question
| large biomolecules (fats, proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides) |
answer
| polymers of many subunits (monomers) connected through condensation rxns |
question
| ethers |
answer
| c,h,o. archaebacteria use ethers instead of esters in the lipids in their membranes; prokary and eukary use esters. |
question
| carbs |
answer
| polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds yielding these on hydrolysis. 5th alcohol tends to attach teh carbonyl c and 6th is just dangling. 3% in open chain form and 97% are ring form. |
question
| carb classification |
answer
| mono= simple; triose= 3 carbon sugar (glyceraldehyde); tetrose= 4 carbon sugar (erythrose); pentose= 5 c sugar (ribose) hexose= 6 c sugar (glucose, fructose) |
question
| disaccharide |
answer
| 2 simple sugars connected by glycosidic bond that is the result of condensation rxn; sucrose= fructose and glucose; maltose = 2 glucose |
question
| oligosaccharides |
answer
| 2-10 simple sugars connected by glycosidic bonds |
question
| polysaccharide |
answer
| 10 + simple sugars connected through glycosidic bond; glycogen (polymer of glucose in liver); starch (plants) and cellulose (cell walls in plants) |
question
| amino sugars |
answer
| one hydroxyl group replaced by amino group; ex. nag and nam. nam= nag + lactic acid |
question
| importance of carbs |
answer
| primary source of c for most organisms, primary source of e, used for storage of e & c, and play structural role in cell walls (pg in walls of bacter, celluose in plants) |
question
| lipids |
answer
| heterogenous group of compound defined by solubility; slightly soluble in water but readily in organic solvents (chlorofomr, ether) Fats are a subclass of this group that are esters of long chain carboxylic acids (fatty acids) and the polyhydric alcohol (glycerol). importance: source of e and c, and storage form of e and c. they're important components in all membranes; eubacteria and eukary use phospholiids in their membranes; archae use lipids with compounds attached to glycerol by ether. |
question
| nucleosides and nucleotides |
answer
| mucleoside= pentose linked to n base. adenine and guanine= purine; cytosine and thymine/uracil=pyrimidine. Nucleotides= nucleoside phosphates; phosphate to pentose to n base. |
question
| significance of nucleotides and nucleosides |
answer
| nucleotides: used for storage of chemical energy, most common is atp (uses ribose) Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) are polymers of nucleotides. |
question
| DNA |
answer
| polynucleotides formed by condensation rxns between nucleotides. DNA: ds linked by hydrogen bonds between N bases. A=t and g-(X3)C. antiparallel 5' end is phosphate and 3' end is hydroxyl group. DNA serves as repository for genetic info; template for dna, rna, and proteins. |
question
| RNA |
answer
| SUGAR= ribose and bases = a,g,c,u. RNA can form H bonds with other rna molecules or dna molecules (intermolecular h bonds) or with part of the same rna molecules (intramolecular h bonds). cellular organisms have 3 types rna; trna, rrna, mrna. all 3 involved in protein synthesis. |
question
| amino acids |
answer
| + & - charges as physiological pH. they have amino and carboxylic acid groups. 3 N bases= 1 amino acid. Significance: source of c, n, and e. Proteins are polymers of amino acids. used structurally and functionally (microtubules, filaments) and catalyticaly (enxymes). catalytic rna= ribozymes; catalytic proteins= enzymes. |
question
| Peptide bond formation |
answer
| 3 amino acids connected together by peptide bonds = tripeptide; 4= tetrapeptide; and so on. 10+ amino acids connected= polypeptide. oligo= 2-10. any polypeptide will have free N group at one end and free C group at other. Most common = 20 amino acids that differ in r groups. (12 hydrophilic and 8 hydrophobic. |
question
| proteins |
answer
| polypeptides; smallest protein is 50 amino acids w/ mw of 6000 g/ml. All properties depend on sequence of amino acids. (primary level of stucture) |
question
| levels of protein structure |
answer
| primary= sequence of amino acids; secondary= beta pleated sheets, alpha helices by h bonding between carbonyl and amino ends; tertiary= the way the protein folds in water, getting all hydrophobic r groups away from water; quaternary: protein that can only function if 2 or more polypeptide chains associate together. (only active that way) |
question
| enzymes |
answer
| biological catalysts; most are globular proteins; molecules acted on are called substrates which bind to a specific site (Active site) and are converted to products. most function w/o additional components but some need them. |
question
| additional components of enzymes |
answer
| known as cofactors (can be organic or inorganic) organic cofactors = coenzymes (usually vitamins or derivatives) inorganic cofactors= metal ions that must be in active sites (Mn, Fe, Zn). If protein needs a cofactor to be active, then protein portion is known as apoenzyme; this + cofactor = holoenzyme. |
question
| sites of action for enzymes |
answer
| most function inside cell (intracellular or endoenzymes) others are made inside but transported out (extracellular or exoenzymes) most extracellular are hydrolytic sent out to scavenge for nutrients. Bacteria and fungi do this. |
question
| metabolic regulation of enzymes (Activity) |
answer
| direct way for cell to regulate metabolism by controlling enzyme activity or enzyme availability. Activity: effector molecules can bind to specific site on enzymes to speed up or slow down substrate into product. these enzymes are called allosteric enzymes. Activators= effector molecules that change shape to make it bind better or convert s to p faster once bound. Inhibitors= effector molecules that change shape to bind s less well or convert s to p slower. Allosteric enzymes = fine level of control. |
question
| regulation of enzymes (availablilty) |
answer
| many enzymes are constitutive (always made). others are inducuble (not normally produced but can be turned on) or repressible (normally on but can be turned off). (biosynthesis). coarse level of control; lag time. |
question
| bacteria shapes |
answer
| cocci: sperical (thiomargarita) bacilli: cylindrical or rod shaped (bacillus) spirilla: curved pleomorphic= many shaped; weak cell walls. |
question
| arrangement of shapes |
answer
| cocci: diplococci occur in pairs, streptococci occur in chains; tetrads and sarcinae: occur in groups of 4; staph: irregular grapes; bacilli: single, unattached after division; Crynebacterium = chinese letters, palisades. Spiral: most spiral occur as single cells; vibrios are short, curved rods. Spirilla: rigid, helical shaped with flagella at one or both ends. |
question
| Staining |
answer
| stains are large, usually charged organic molecules with colored portion called chromophores; if chromophore has + charge it's basic; if - its acidic. used to see the size and shape and arrangement, to see structures, storage materials, differentiate between types. |
question
| direct or positive staining |
answer
| basic dye will react with - charged polymers in and on cell |
question
| indirect/ negative staining |
answer
| acidic dye; used to stain the background no distortion |
question
| differential staining |
answer
| use two different colors and decolorization step. 2 most important: acid fast and gram |
question
| gram stain |
answer
| gram + stain purple with first dye (very thick pg layers and it won't wash out) gram - stain with pink dye (thin pg layers that wash out easily). Gram + have 90% wall of pg, rest is made of acidic polysaccharides of techoic acids in pg and lipotechoic acids in cell membrane. Gram - has thin pg layer 10-20% rest in phospholipids, lps, and protein; phospholipids are not in gram + cell walls; gram - have extra membrane = periplasmic space |
question
| gram + |
answer
| most cocci are gram +, most endospore forming bacteria are gram + (clostridium and bacillus) |
question
| acid fast stain |
answer
| used to identify members of genera mycobacterium and nocardia which have thick waxy layer external to pg layer; rich in fatty acids called mycolic acids (close to outer membrane of gram - except no lps) |
question
| bacteria membranes |
answer
| amphoteric: containing + and - charged groups ; amphipathic: compound with 1 part hydrophilic and another hydrophobic. composed of about 40% lipd and 60% protein. |
question
| cell walls |
answer
| most bacteria have pg layer= heteropolymer of amino sugars and acids (sugars = nag and nam) Function: protection from osmotic lysis, gives shape, resists passage of large molecules |
question
| glycocalyces |
answer
| made of polysaccharides external to cell wall; covering of macromolecules on surface of cell; thin = slime layer; thick and sticky= capsule. helps prevent water loss. make it resistant to phagocytosis and allow bacteria to attach to solid surfaces. |
question
| flagella |
answer
| flagellin, basal body, and hook. made through self assembly. Amphitrichous: boht ends lophotrichous: one end monotrichous: 1 and peritrichous: all around |
question
| pili and fimbriae: |
answer
| most common on gram -. pili for sexual conjugation from males to females; fimbriae for attachment |
