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memory

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memory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the english language, the national anthem, and yourself memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. it is our ability to store and retrieve information

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flashbulb memory

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a unique and highly emotional moment may give rise to a clear, strong, and persistent memory called flashbulb memory. however this memory is not free from errors

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information processing model: tasks of memory

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encoding->storage->retrieval

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Memorys three basic tasks

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1) encoding- requires that you select some stimulus event (from the vast array of inputs assaulting your senses) 2) storage- involves the retention of encoded material over time 3) retrieval- accessing the information and bringing it to consciousness

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photographic memory

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the technical term for "photographic memory" is eidetic imagery - sn eidetic image portrays the most interesting and meaningful parts of the scene most accurately -most commonly in children (5%) but only rarely in adults

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Information Processing

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-the atkinson-schiffrin (1968) three stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory b) short term memory c)long term memory - the stages work like an assembly line to convert flow of incoming stimuli into meaningful patterns that can be stored and later remembered

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sensory memory

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the most fleeting of the three stages -typically holds sights, sounds, smells, textures and other sensory impressions for only a fraction of a second

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working memory( short term memory)

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takes info from sensory register and connects it with items already in long term storage -built to hold info for only a few seconds (temporarily holds items like a phone number) -we actively associate new and old information and solve problems

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long term memory

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receives information from working(short term memory) and can store it for much longer periods of time -sometimes for the rest of a persons life

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problems with the model

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1) some information skips the first two stages and enters long term memory automatically 2) since we cannot focus all the sensory info in the environment, we select info (through attention) that is important to us 3) the nature of short-term(working) memory is more complex

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working memory

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alan baddeley (2002) proposed that working meory contains auditory and visual processing controlled by the central executive through an episodic buffer -allows us to process images and words simultaneously - this explains why we can talk and drive at the same time

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encoding: getting information in

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how we encode 1) some information( route to your school) is automatically processed 2) however, new or unusual information (friend's new cell phone number) requires attention and effort

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automatic processing

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we process an enormous amount of information effortlessly such as the following: 1) space- remember where picture is on textbook page (when struggling to recall the info you may visualize its location) 2) time- we unintentionally note the events that take place in a day 3) frequency- you effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you

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effortful processing

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committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. such processing leads to durable and accessible memories

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rehearsal

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effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning

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maintenance rehearsal

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repeating yourself over and over again (phone numbers) -serves well for maintaining info. temporarily in working memory

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elaborative rehearsal

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information is repeated and actively connected to knowledge already stored-better strategy for getting info into long-term memory

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memory effects

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1) next-in-line-effect: when you are so anxious about being next you cannot remember what the person just before you in line says, but you can recall what other people around you say 2)spacing effect: we retain information better when we rehearse over time 3) serial position effect: when your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items

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types of encoding

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1) visual- encoding its image 2) acoustic- encoding of sound, especially the sound of words 3) semantic- encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

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visual encodingq

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mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

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visual encoding: mnemonic devices

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-mnemonic- greek word for memory -developed by ancient greek scholars and orators as aids to remembering lengthy passages and speeches

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organizing information for encoding

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breakdown complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories 1) chunking 2)hierarchy

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chunking

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organizing pieces of information into smaller number of meaningful units or chunks acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it

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hierarchy

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complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

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storage- retaining information

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storage is at the heart of memory

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the capacity and duration of sensory memory

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George Sperling (1960)- found that this stage of memory holds far more info than ever reaches consciousness - when spiraling flashed a group of letter for 1/20th of a second people could only recall only about half the letters -the expose time for the stimulus is so small that items cannot be rehearsed

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sensory memories: two types

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iconic memory- a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; photographic or picture image (.5 sec)- fleeting echoic memory- momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; sounds/words (3-4 sec)-better than iconic

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working memory (new name for short term memory)

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has a limited capacity (7 +/- 2) and a short duration (20 seconds)

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duration

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brown/peterson and peterson (1958/1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating rehearsal

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long term memory

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unlimited capacity store. estimates on capacity range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of information (landauer, 1986)

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storing memories in the brain

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1) through electrical stimulation of the brain, wilder pen field (1967) concluded that old memories were etched into the brain 2) loftus and loftus (1980) reviewed pen fields data and showed that only a handful of brain stimulated patients reported flashbacks 3) using rats lashely(1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze

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synaptic changes

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long term potentiation- refers to synaptic enhancement after learning -an increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neurons indicates strengthening of synapses

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stress hormone and memory

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heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. continued stress may disrupt memory

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storing implicit and explicit memories

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-explicit memories- refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare implicit memories- involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows- procedural memory (during a routine)

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hippocampus

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a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories

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amnesia

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the loss of memory

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anterograde amnesia

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after losing his hippocampus in surgery the patient can remember everything before the surgery but cannot make new memories

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cerebellum

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a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories

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retrieval- getting info out

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refers to getting information out of memory storage

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measures of memory

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-recognition- the person must identify an item amongst other choices - recall-the person must retrieve information using effort -relearning- the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time

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retrieval cues

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memories are geld in storage by a web of associations. these associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory -priming is the implicit memory effect in which exposure to stimulus influences response to later stimulus -context effects- putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory retrieval

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deja vu

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"I've experienced this before"

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moods and memories

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we usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood. emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues

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tip of the tongue (TOT)

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TOT phenomenon- the inability to recall a word while knowing that it is in memory

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forgetting

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an inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage , or retrieval

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seven sins of forgetting (Schacter, 1999) forgetting

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1) absent mindedness- inattention to details produce encoding failure (our mind is elsewhere as we lay down the car keys) 2) transience- storage decay over time (fading memories; how would you do on a rigorous test of the course work you took a year ago?) 3) blocking- interference causes forgetting; inaccessibility of stored information (TOT; one item acts as an obstacle to accessing and retrieving another memory)

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seven sins of forgetting (schacter, 1999) distortion

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4) misattribution- confusing the sources of information;memories associated with the wrong times, place or person 5) suggestibility- the distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation (a leading question later becomes a false memory) 6) bias- belief- colored recollections; the influence of personal beliefs, attitudes, and experiences on memory 7) persistance- unwanted memories; when we can't forget (being haunted by images of a sexual assault)

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storage decay

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poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay

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interference

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learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other information

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interference: proactive vs retroactive

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proactive interference- a cause of forgetting by which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information retroactive interference- a cause of forgetting by which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material

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motivated forgetting

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people unknowingly revise their memories repression- a defense mechanism that banishes anxiety- arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness

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misinformation effect

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incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

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factors affecting eyewitnesses

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-peoples recollections are less influenced by leading questions if they are forewarned that interrogations can create memory bias -when the passage of time allows the original memory to fade, people are more likely to misremember information -each time a memory is retrieved, is it reconstructed and then restored- increasing the chances of error -the age of the witness matters- younger children and adults over 64 may be especially susceptible to influence by misinformation in their efforts to recall -confidence in memory is not a sign of accurate memory. in fact, misinformed people can actually come to believe the misinformation in which they feel confident

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source amnesia

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attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagine (misattribution)

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false memory syndrome

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a condition in which a person's identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of a traumatic experience, which is sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

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constructed memories

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loftus' research shows that if false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories

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improving memory

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1) study repeatedly to boost long-term recall 2) spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material 3) make material personally meaningful 4) use mnemonic devices 5) activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate the situation and mood 6) recall events while they are fresh- before you encounter misinformation 7) minimize interference

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