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motivation

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psychological forces that determine the direction of a person's behavior in an organization, a person's level of effort, and a person's level of persistence.

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intrinsically motivated behavior

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behavior that is performed for its own sake.

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extrinsically motivated behavior

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behavior that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment.

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prosocially motivated behavior

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behavior that is performed to benefit or help others.

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outcome

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anything a person gets from a job or organization

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input

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anything a person contributes to his or her job or organization.

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expectancy theory

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the theory that motivation will be high when workers believe that high levels of effort lead to high performance and high performance leads to the attainment of desired outcomes.

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expectancy

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in expectancy theory, a perception about the extent to which effort results in a certain level of performance.

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instrumentality

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in expectancy theory, a perception about the extent to which performance results in the attainment of outcomes.

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valence

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in expectancy theory, how desirable each of the outcomes available from a job or organization is to a person.

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need

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a requirement or necessity for survival and well-being.

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need theories

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theories of motivation that focus on what needs people are trying to satisfy at work and what outcomes will satisfy those needs.

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maslow's hierarchy of needs

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an arrangement of five basic needs that, according to maslow, motivate behaviour. maslow proposed that the lowest level of unmet needs is the prime motivator and that only one level of needs is motivational at a time.

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alderfer's ERG theory

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the theory that three universal needs--for existence, relatedness, and growth--constitute a hierarchy of needs and motivate behaviour. alderfer proposed that needs at more than one level can be motivational at the same time.

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herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory

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a need theory that distinguishes between motivator needs (related to the nature of the work itself) and hygiene needs (related to the physical and psychological context in which the work is performed) and proposes that motivator needs must be met for motivation and job satisfaction to be high.

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need for achievement

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the extent to which an individual has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence.

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need for affiliation

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the extent to which an individual is concerned about establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relations, being liked, and having the people around him or her get along with each other.

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need for power

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the extent to which and individual desires to control or influence others.

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equity theory

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a theory of motivation that focuses on people's perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes relative to their work inputs.

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equity

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the justice, impartiality, and fairness to which all organizational members are entitled.

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inequity

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lack of fairness.

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underpayment inequity

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the inequity that exists when a person perceives that his or her own income-output ration is less than the ratio of a referent.

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overpayment inequity

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the inequity that exists when a person perceives that his or her own outcome-input ration is greater than the ratio of a referent.

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goal-setting theory

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a theory that focuses on identifying the types of goals that are most effective in producing high levels of motivation and performance and explaining why goals have these effects.

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learning theories

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theories that focus on increasing employee motivation and performance by linking the outcomes that employees receive to the performance of desired behaviors and the attainment of goals.

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learning

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a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from practice or experience.

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operant conditioning theory

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the theory that people learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences.

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positive reinforcement

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giving people outcomes they desire when they perform organizationally functional behaviors.

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negative reinforcement

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eliminating or removing undesired outcomes when people perform organizationally functional behaviors.

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extinction

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curtailing the performance of dysfunctional behaviors by eliminating whatever is reinforcing them.

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punishment

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administering an undesired or negative consequence when dysfunctional behavior occurs.

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organizational behavior modification (OB MOD)

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the systematic application of operant conditioning techniques to promote the performance of organizationally functional behaviors and discourage the performance of dysfunctional behaviors.

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social learning theory

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a theory that takes into account how learning and motivation are influenced by people's thoughts and beliefs and their observations of other people's behavior.

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vicarious learning

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learning that occurs when the learner becomes motivated to perform a behavior by watching another person perform it and be reinforced for doing so; also called observational learning.

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self reinforcer

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any desired or attractive outcome or reward that a person gives to himself or herself for good performance.

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self-efficacy

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a person's belief about his or her ability to perform a behavior successfully.

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merit pay plan

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a compensation plan that bases pay on performance.

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employee stock option

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a financial instrument that entitles the bearer to buy shares of an organization's stock at a certain price during a certain period of time or under certain conditions.

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leadership

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the process by which an individual exerts influence over other people and inspires, motivates, and directs their activities to help achieve group or organizational goals.

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leader

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an individual who is able to exert influence over other people to help achieve group or organizational goals.

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servant leader

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a leader who has a strong desire to serve and work for the benefit of others.

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legitimate power

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the authority that a manager has by virtue of his or her position in an organization's hierarchy.

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reward power

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the ability of a manager to give or withhold tangible and intangible rewards.

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coercive power

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the ability of a manager to punish others.

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expert power

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power that is based on the special knowledge, skills, and expertise that a leader possesses.

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referent power

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power that comes from subordinates' and coworkers respect, admiration, and loyalty.

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empowerment

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the expansion of employees' knowledge, tasks, and decision-making responsibilities.

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consideration

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behavior indicating that a manager trusts, respects, and cares about subordinates.

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initiating structure

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behavior that managers engage in to ensure that work gets done, subordinates perform their jobs acceptably, and the organization is efficient and effective.

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relationship-oriented leaders

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leaders whose primary concern is to develop good relationships with their subordinates and to be liked by them.

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task-oriented leaders

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leaders whose primary concern is to ensure that subordinates perform at a high level.

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leader-member relations

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the extent to which followers like, trust, and are loyal to their leader; a determinant of how favorable a situation is for leading.

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task structure

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the extent to which the work to be performed is clear-cut so that a leader's subordinates know what needs to accomplished and how to go about doing it; a determinant of how favorable a situation is for leading.

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position power

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the amount of legitimate, reward, and coercive power that a leader has by virtue of his or her position in an organization; a determinant of how favorable a situation is for leading.

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path-goal theory

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a contingency model of leadership proposing that leaders can motivate subordinates by identifying their desired outcomes, and clarifying for them the paths leading to the attainment of work goals.

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leadership substitute

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a characteristic of a subordinate or of a situation or context that acts in place of the influence of a leader and makes leadership unnecessary.

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transformational leadership

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leadership that makes subordinates aware of the importance of their jobs and performance to the organization and aware of their own needs for personal growth and that motivates subordinates to work for the good of the organization.

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charismatic leader

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an enthusiastic, self-confident leader who is able to clearly communicate his or her vision of how good things could be.

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intellectual stimulation

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behavior a leader engages in to make followers be aware of problems and view these problems in new ways, consistent with the leader's vision.

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developmental consideration

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behavior a leader engages in to support and encourage followers and help them develop and grow on the job.

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transactional leadership

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leadership that motivates subordinates by rewarding them for high performance and reprimanding them for low performance

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group

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two or more people who interact with each other to accomplish certain goals or meet certain needs.

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team

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a group whose members work intensely with one another to achieve a specific common goal or objective.

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synergy

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performance gains that result when individuals and departments coordinate their actions.

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formal group

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a group that managers establish to achieve organizational goals.

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informal group

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a group that managers or nonmanagerial employees form to help achieve their own goals or meet their own needs.

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top management team

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a group composed of the ceo, the president, and the heads of the most important departments.

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research and development team

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a team whose members have the expertise and experience needed to develop new products.

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command group

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a group composed of subordinates who report to the same supervisor; also called department or unit.

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task force

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a committee of managers or nonmanagerial employees from various departments or divisions who meet to solve a specific, mutual problem; also called ad hoc committee.

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self-managed work team

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a group of employees who supervise their own activities and monitor the quality of the goods and services they provide.

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virtual team

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a team whose members rarely or never meet face-to-face but, rather, interact by using various forms of information technology such as e-mail, computer networks, telephone, fax, and video conferences.

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friendship group

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an informal group composed of employees who enjoy one another's company and socialize with one another.

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interest group

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an informal group composed of employees seeking to achieve a common goal related to their membership in an organization.

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division of labor

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splitting the work to be performed into particular tasks and assigning tasks to individual workers.

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task interdependence

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the degree to which the work performed by one member of a group influences the work performed by other members.

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pooled task interdependence

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the task interdependence that exists when group members make separate and independent contributions to group performance.

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sequential task interdependence

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the task interdependence that exists when group members must perform specific tasks in a predetermined order.

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reciprocal task interdependence

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the task interdependence that exists when the work performed by each group member is fully dependent on the work performed by other group members.

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group role

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a set of behaviors of and tasks that a member of a group is expected to perform because of his or her position in the group.

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role making

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taking the initiative to modify an assigned role by assuming additional responsibilities.

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group norms

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shared guidelines or rules for behavior that most group members follow.

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group cohesiveness

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the degree to which members are attracted to or loyal to their group.

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social loafing

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the tendency of individuals to put forth less effort when they work in groups than when they work alone.

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communication

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the sharing of information between two or more individuals or groups to reach a common understanding.

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sender

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the person or group wishing to share information.

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message

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the information that a sender wants to share.

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encoding

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translating a message into understandable symbols or language.

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noise

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anything that hampers any stage of the communication process.

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receiver

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the person or group for which a message is intended.

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medium

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the pathway through which an encoded message is transmitted to a receiver.

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decoding

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interpreting and trying to make sense of a message.

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verbal communication

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the encoding of messages into words, either written or spoken.

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nonverbal communication

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the encoding of messages by means of facial expressions, body language, and styles of dress.

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information richness

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the amount of information that a communication medium can carry and the extent to which the medium enables the sender and receiver to reach a common understanding.

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management by wandering around

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a face-to-face communication technique in which a manager walks around a work area and talks informally with employees about issues and concerns.

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information overload

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the potential for important information to be ignored or overlooked while tangential information receives attention.

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blog

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a web site on which an individual, group, or organization posts information, commentary, and opinions and to which readers can often respond with their own commentary and opinions.

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communication networks

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the pathways along which information flows in groups and teams and throughout the organization.

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grapevine

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an informal communication network along which unofficial information flows.

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internet

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a global system of computer networks

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intranet

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a companywide system of computer networks.

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groupware

answer

computer software that enables members of groups and teams to share information with one another.

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collaboration software

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groupware that promotes and facilitates collaborative, highly interdependent interactions and provides an electronic meeting site for communication among team members.

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jargon

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specialized language that members of an occupation, group, or organization develop to facilitate communication among themselves.

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filtering

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withholding part of a message because of the mistake belief that the receiver does not need or will not want the information.

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information distortion

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changes in the meaning of a message as the message passes through a series of senders and receivers.

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rumors

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unofficial pieces of information of interest to organizational members but with no identifiable source.

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linguistic style

answer

a person's characteristic way of speaking.

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