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Intelligence is the ability to:

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1) Learn from one's experiences 2) Acquire knowledge 3) Use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems Characteristics needed to survive in one's culture.

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Two Factor Theory (Spearman)

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"g" factor: general mental ability - foundation for your intelligence. A general intelligence factor that underlies specific mental abilities s" factor: specific intelligence (verbal, mathematical, and mechanical skills) The idea is certain things come packaged together.

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Advantages & Disadvantages of Two Factor Theory (Spearman)

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Advantages: - Can be objectively defined and measured by an IQ test. - Good predictor of performance in school and some job fields. - measures verbal, mathematical, and mechanical skills Disadvantages: - Debate exists if it's best measure of intelligence. - Narrow focus on cognitive abilities, doesn't measure other abilities.

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Multiple Intelligence Theory (Gardner)

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Verbal: Think in words/use language Logical - Mathematical: carry out math operations Musical: sensitive to pitch, melody, rhythm, tone Spatial: think three-dimensionally Kinesthetic: manipulate objects/physically adept Interpersonal: understand and interact with others Intrapersonal: understand oneself (ex: knowing how you're coming across to other people - you may think you're happy but ppl may perceive you're being mean). Naturalistic: observe/understand patterns in nature Existential: spiritual understanding (added later)

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Advantages & Disadvantages of Multiple Intelligence Theory (Gardner)

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Advantages: - Doesn't reduce intel to a single IQ score (has many other factors) - Gives credit to people with different kinds of intelligence Disadvantages: - Not knowing how many kinds of intelligence there are - No standard techniques to measure them.

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Triarchic Theory (Sternberg)

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Intel can be divided into three different kinds of reasoning processes (these are not necessarily correlated): 1) Analytical intelligence - Ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare & contrast - Do well on intelligence tests & SAT - Academic problem solving 2) Creative Intelligence - Ability to create, design, invent, originate, imagine 3) Practical Intelligence - Ability to use, apply, implement and put tasks into practice - Often required for everyday tasks - Social skills & "common sense"

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Advantages & Disadvantages of Triarchic Theory (Sternberg)

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Advantages: - Doesn't limit definition of intelligence to cognitive abilities - Evaluates intel by measuring 3 reasoning processes and how they contribute to a person's success Disadvantages: - Processes can be difficult to measure

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Emotional Intelligence

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Awareness of & ability to manage one's own emotions Ability to be self-motivated Able to feel what others feel and socially skilled Viewed as a powerful influence on success in life Salovey & Mayer (1990), Goleman (1995)

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Alfred Binet

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Developed first intelligence test for French government Developed to identify children for remedial education (test scores showed who needed extra help) Believed intelligence was collection of mental abilities Best way to assess: measure ability to perform cognitive tasks

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Mental Age

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Method of estimating child's intellectual progress by comparing their test score to scores of average children of the same age. IQ = Mental Age /Chronological Age X 100 IQ: intelligence quotient

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Wechsler Intelligence Tests

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WAIS - IV: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale WISC: Children IQ test Most widely (common) used IQ test Adult, child, & preschool versions.

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Validity

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extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.

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Reliability

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extent to which a test yields consistent results on repeat testing of individuals or groups.

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Standardization

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testing large group of people that represents population for whom test is designed. Standardized test is designed for a specific group of people (ex: SAT is designed for high school Juniors/seniors, or LSAT designed for lawyers).

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Norms

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Scores from the standardization group Standards against which all other test takers are compared.

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Normal distribution

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statistical arrangement of scores that resemble a bell-shaped curve - Represents all standardized test results

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Potential Problems of IQ testing: Non-Intellectual Factors:

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Non-cognitive factors may help or hinder performance on tests Attitude, motivation, experience taking tests, fatigue

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Potential Problems of IQ testing: Cultural Bias

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o Wording of questions o Experiences questions are based on o Different cultures define intel differently

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Distribution and Use of IQ Scores

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Medium-strength correlation (+.50) between IQ and academic performance Low to medium strength correlation (+.30 to +.50) between IQ and job performance

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Influence of Heredity and Environment: Twin Studies

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Genetic and environmental factors both contribute to development of intelligence

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Influence of Heredity and Environment: Adoption studies

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Children with limited social-educational opportunities and low IQs were adopted by parents who could provide increased opportunities; led to increase in IQ scores

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Influence of Heredity and Environment: Environmental Influences

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Modifications in environment can change IQ scores considerably; very complex - Socioeconomic status - Parent communication - Schooling Flynn Effect

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Flynn Effect

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increasing IQ scores each year

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Infancy: Early Emotions

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o Present in humans and other animals o Appear in first six months of life o Surprise, joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust

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Infancy: Self-Conscious Emotions

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o Appear in first 18 months to 2 years o Acquire and use society's standards and rules o Empathy, jealousy, embarrassment

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Infancy

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Ability to communicate emotions allows coordinated interactions with caregivers Beginning of emotional bond Parents and infants change expressions in response to each other (mutually regulated) Coordinated interactions are said to be reciprocal or synchronous

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Infant Smiling: Reflexive Smile

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Does not occur in response to external stimuli Occurs during first month after birth, usually during sleep

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Infant Smiling: Social smile

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Response to external stimulus Occurs about 2 to 3 months of age Typically in response to a face

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Stranger Anxiety

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Fear and wariness of strangers Intense between 9 and 12 months Affected by social context and stranger's characteristics Can vary by individual

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Separation Anxiety (protest):

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Distress when familiar caregiver leaves Most obvious 9-14 months Sign of attachment An emotional disorder if still strong after age 3

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Early Childhood

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Self conscious emotions appear with self awareness at 18 months 2-4 years: ability to talk about emotions 4-5 years: understand same event can elicit different feelings in different people

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Adolescence

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Time of emotional turmoil but not constantly Emotional changes instantly occur with little provocation - Girls more vulnerable to depression - Adolescent moodiness is normal - Hormonal changes and environmental experiences

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Adulthood

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Adapt more effectively when emotionally intelligent Create emotionally satisfying lifestyles; predictable and manageable Older adults have more positive emotions, report better control of emotions

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Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

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Older adults become more selective about their social networks Place high value on emotional satisfaction Spend more time with familiar individuals providing rewarding relationships Seek more emotion-related goals than knowledge-related goals

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Temperament

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Individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of emotional response Inborn differences in emotions, activity and self-control Primarily genetic traits although environment can influence their expression Closely linked to personality (but are not learned traits)

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Chess and Thomas' Classification: Easy Child (40%)

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o Positive mood o Quickly establishes routines o Adapts easily to new experiences

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Chess and Thomas' Classification: Difficult Child (10%)

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o Reacts negatively o Cries frequently o Has irregular routines o Slow to accept new experiences

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Chess and Thomas' Classification: Slow-to-warm-up child (15%)

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o Low activity level o Somewhat negative o Shows low adaptability o Display low-intensity mood

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Kagan's Behavioral Inhibition

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Inhibition to the unfamiliar (people they didn't know, they would act inhibited and be kind of nervous) Differences between children o Shy, subdued, timid - high inhibition o Sociable, extraverted, bold - low inhibition Inhibition shows considerable stability from infancy through early childhood Inhibition is the key concept with Kagan

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Rothbart & Bates

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3 Categories of temperament: 1) Extraversion/surgency 2) Negative Affectivity (negative emotions) 3) Effortful Control (self-regulation)

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Rothbart & Bates: Extraversion/surgency

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Positive anticipation, impulsivity, sensation seeking

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Rothbart & Bates: Negative Affectivity (negative emotions)

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o Fear, frustration, sadness and discomfort o Similar to Kagan's inhibition

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Rothbart & Bates: Effortful Control (self-regulation)

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Attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control

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Developmental Contexts

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Gender and culture may influence temperament Child's environment can encourage or discourage persistence of temperament characteristics Goodness of Fit

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Goodness of Fit

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Match between child's temperament and environmental demands. (ex: outgoing/crazy child in middle east will not be a good fit because that environment does not allow you to express that)

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Parenting and Child's Temperament

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Management strategies that worked for one child may not work for the next one Child's individual characteristics Structuring child's environment to fit with temperament Labeling the "difficult child" is a bad thing. Children always know when parents think of them as a problem

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Attachment

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Close emotional bond between child and a particular individual

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Theories of Attachment: Freud

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Infants attach to person or object providing oral satisfaction (feeding) Harlow's research proved otherwise. Comfort and Security (the monkey experiment shows monkey only goes to wire mother for food and finds comfort and security in the soft mother)

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Theories of Attachment: Bowlby

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Stressed importance of attachment in 1st year and responsiveness of caregiver Infants and caregivers are biologically predisposed to form attachments Secure Base (mother is the base for the child, child can go out and explore but they can always come back to their base - their mother)

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Theories of Attachment: The Strange Situation

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Ainsworth's measure of infant attachment to caregiver Requires infant to move through series of introductions, separations, reunions Some infants have more positive attachments than others

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Secure Attachment

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When mom is in room, child plays happily. When mom leaves child is unhappy, and when mom comes back child is immediately happy/better.

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Insecure Avoidant Attachment

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When mom is in room, child plays happily. When mom leaves child continues playing. When mom returns child ignores her.

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Insecure resistant/ambivalent attachment

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When mom is in the room, child clings, is preoccupied with mother. When mother leaves child is unhappy and may stop playing. When mom returns child is angry and may cry/hit mother. Do you like mom or not? Ambivalent.

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Disorganized attachment

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When mom is in room, child is cautious. When mom leaves child may stare or yell, look confused. When mom returns child acts oddly, may freeze, scream, hit self, throw things.. disorganized behavior.

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Significance of Attachment

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Important foundation for psychological development Some believe too much emphasis on attachment bond in infancy - Ignores socializing agents (ppl in environment other than caregiver) and contexts - Ignores that infants are resilient (tough, bounce back from things) and adaptive

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Self Esteem

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o Global evaluative dimension of oneself o Same as self-worth or image o "I'm a good person"

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Self Concept

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o Domain-specific evaluations of the self (specific areas) o Academic, athletic, appearance

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Issues with Self Esteem

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o Modest correlations link self-esteem and school performance o Links vary between adult job performance and self esteem o Self-esteem related to perceived physical appearance across life span o Depression lowers high self esteem

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Persons with high Self Esteem

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Increased happiness Have greater initiative Prone to both pro-social (doing things that are good for people) and anti-social actions (doing things that are not good for people) • Need a lot of confidence & high self-esteem to help others, and being confident doing things may harm others (ex: most confident, best stock broker, most likely harmed others with selling a lot of stocks). Sometimes it's not intentional. Ex: since you're so confident/have high self-esteem you got the job promotion, taking the opportunity away from someone else. Hurt someone else not trying to.

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Undeserved Self Esteem

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Narcissism: self-centered, self-concerned - Conceited - Lack of awareness linked to adjustment problems - Undeserved high self-esteem, think they're someone that they're not. Think they're the best salesman but they're not.

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Self-Esteem in Adulthood

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Some researchers find drops in self-esteem in late adulthood; others don't. Other adults with positive self-esteem: - May not see losses (may lose spouse, parents, friends, appearance, etc) as negative. - Decrease in knowledge-related goals (don't need to associate w/ ppl you don't like to increase your knowledge because you're content w/ everything you know as an adult) - Increase in emotion-related goals (surround yourself with people you like) - Compare themselves to other older adults (healthy to do)

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Achievement

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boosts self-esteem for both children and adults.

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What is Identity?

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• Vocational/career • Political • Religious • Relationship • Achievement/intellectual • Sexual • Cultural/ethnic • Interests • Personality • Physical o Many different aspects

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Erikson's Ideas on Identity: Identity vs. Identity (Role) confusion

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Adolescents examine who they are, what they are about and where they are going in life

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Erikson's Ideas on Identity: Psychosocial moratorium (moratorium = a break, a pause, a temporary stop)

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o Gap between childhood security and adult autonomy o Free of responsibilities, free to try out different identities

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Identity statuses

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James Marcia: individuals go through periods of: o Crisis: o Commitment: o 4 Identity Statuses: ♣ 1) Identity Diffusion: ♣ 2) Identity Foreclosure ♣ 3) Identity Moratorium (now you have a crisis) ♣ 4) Identity Achievement

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Crisis

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Exploring alternatives during identity development (ex: realizing you don't want to major in accounting anymore so you explore nursing)

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Commitment

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Individuals show personal investment in what they are going to do

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Identity Diffusion:

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not experienced crisis or made commitment undecided about occupation and ideology, little interest Identity hasn't really formed yet. Unsure about what you want to do with your life, etc. Ex: someone in high school.

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Identity Foreclosure

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Made commitment but not experienced crisis (don't fight it) Handed down from parents in authoritarian way Occurs more often in cultures that emphasize norms and traditions Ex: Japanese parents having their kids be doctors because the parents were doctors and their parents before them.

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Identity Moratorium (now you have a crisis)

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midst of crisis but commitments either absent or vaguely defined seeking advice from advisor, career counselor, etc. Ex: knowing what you DON'T want to do, and you stop majoring in that, but you don't know what to do in its place. So there is a crisis but no commitment.

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Identity Achievement

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undergone crisis, made commitment changed major several times but finally got a degree in X, planning on next educational step.

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Developmental changes in Identity Status

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Young adolescents primarily in statuses of diffusion, foreclosure or moratorium. Important for achieving positive identity - Confidence in parental support - Established sense of industry - Able to adopt self-reflective stance of future (can you see yourself in the future as a nurse?)

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Early Adolescence to Adulthood

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Most important changes occur ages 18 to 25 MAMA cycle: pattern for positive identity - Moratorium, Achievement, Moratorium, Achievement Family influences on identity development - Parent style effects identity development

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MAMA Cycle

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pattern for positive identity - Moratorium, Achievement, Moratorium, Achievement

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Trait Theory

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Personality: broad dispositions or traits that tend to produce characteristic responses Most believe personality is result of trait-situation interaction Big Five Personality Factors - how much or how little do people have these? ♣ Openness ♣ Conscientiousness ♣ Extraversion ♣ Agreeableness ♣ Neuroticism

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Life Events Approach

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How a life event influences individual's development depends on: ♣ The life event itself ♣ Individual's adaptation to the life event ♣ Life-stage context ♣ Socio-historical context

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Question on Test

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68% is the middle section on an IQ test, 100 is the average. 68% of population scores in the middle.

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