KORN Hist- Final – Flashcards

993- 1019 there were 3 of them peace settlement The Koryŏ agreed to maintain some distance toward the Song

993 The Koryŏ continued to push its border northward against Khitans and built fortresses The Khitan Liao dynasty attacked the Koryŏ with several hundred thousand troops The Koryŏ argued that as Koguryŏ's successor, it must control the territory up to Yalu River in order to communicate directly with the Liao When the Koryŏ promised to sever ties with the native Chinese Song Dynasty (960-1279), the Liao—at the time busy fighting the Song—allowed Koryŏ to control the territory right up to the river

(1010-1011) The Koryŏ fortified the new territory, thus alarming the Liao When the Koryŏ refused the Liao demand to return the land, the Liao emperor invaded the Koryŏ with 400,000 troops The Liao army defeated Koryŏ forces and occupied Kaesŏng, forcing the Koryŏ king to flee With its supply route insecure, though, the Liao army withdrew—ordering the Koryŏ king to pay homage at the Liao court The Koryŏ ignored this, and subsequently the Liao raided Koryŏ several times

(1018-1019) The Liao invaded with an army of 100,000 Koryŏ troops harassed the Liao troops at every turn In the northwest, a Koryŏ counter-attack annihilated the Liao army

Descended from the Mohe under Parhae rule, Jurchens were a semi-agricultural people also relying on animal husbandry, hunting, and trade The Koryŏ provided grain, cloth, iron farming tools, and iron weapons Many Jurchens settled in Koryŏ which gave them land and homes Some Koreans joined the Jurchens

By the late 11th c., a leader claiming descent from a Koryŏ man united the Jurchens In 1104, weak Koryŏ forces twice suffered defeat by the Jurchen cavalry Yun Kwan (n.d.-1111) organized a new military unit comprising aristocratic cavalrymen, peasant infantrymen, and warrior monks After an intensive preparation, in 1107-1108 Yun successfully led a massive attack and fortified the conquered territory Yun's political enemies, as well as pleas from Jurchens, led the government to return the conquered territory to Jurchens

general of Goryeo who was known for training a seventeen-thousand man army and leading it to victory against the Jurchens tribe

- conquered the Liao Dynasty (1125) - took northern China from the Song Dynasty (1126) - in the same year when the Jurchen Jin Dynasty demanded that Koryo recognize its suzerainty, Yi Chagyŏm (n.d.-1126) who was a powerful royal-in-law with multiple marriage ties to the throne assented in order not to jeopardize his position in internal politics

n.d.-1126) who was a powerful royal-in-law with multiple marriage ties to the throne assented in order not to jeopardize his position in internal politics in the same year when the Jurchen Jin Dynasty demanded that Koryo recognize its suzerainty

1127 came to power in 1127 when a young king ascended throne 1127- Yi tried to usurp the throne in vain and was banished

(1135-1136) a Buddhist monk advocated moving the capital from Kaesong to Pyongyang and resisting the Jin demands and although king was initially swayed by the monk's geomancy- inspired argument in favor of Pyongyang, the king later wavered due to aristocratic resistance which made him frustrated and in 1135- he raised an army in Pyongyang, rebelled, and proclaimed his own dynasty buy was soon betrayed and killed by own follower and in the following year, an aristocratic official of SIlla Descent (Kim Pusik (1075- 1151) led the government army and crushed the rebellion

1075- 1151, an aristocratic official of Silla descent who led the government army and crushed the Myoch'ong Rebellion History of Three Kingdoms epitomized the Silla succesionist ideolog: a. orthodox Chinese- style history- annals- treatise format b. as rational Confucian, tried to omit whatever he saw as myths/ legends, including Tan'gun legend c. treated Silla as holder of dynastic legitimacy

Aristocratic entrenchment, infighting, and decadence Although civil and military officials together made up the central officialdom, aristocratic civil officials discriminated against the military Because many military officials came from humble backgrounds (joining officialdom through military service), civil officials generally looked down upon the military Kings and civil aristocrats increasingly mistreated military men—arduous escort duties and personal insults

by 10th century, local strongmen had been transformed into local functionaries (hyangni) - each county/ prefecture had families producing functionaries on a hereditary basis - local functionaries assisted the central government with tax collection and manpower mobilization the central government allowed sons of higher ranking functionaries to enter officialdom - those passing the government service exam had the best chance of becoming a high- level central official - others entered central officialdom through a technical/ military service - joining central official meant achieving aristocratic status each central government agency maintained its own functionaries performing administrative and clerical duties

927- 989 early Koryo aristocrats - son of a Silla official of Head- Rank Six status - sought to create a centralized system - advocated a monarchy heeding to aristocratic counsels

-many early Koryo aristocrats were descendants of Silla's True- Bone and Head- Rank Six families - in Koryo society, entering central officialdom secured aristocratic status for an individual as well as his descendants > drawn from families all over Korea, an aristocratic family identified itself with a surname and an ancestral seat (pon'gwan)- the place where ancestors originally had been local functionaries > aristocratic families generally resided in the capital although they could have nonaristocratic kinsmen back in the ancestral seat locales aristocrats sought out appropriate marriage partners to enhance family's prestige and the most sought out was the royal family

Koryŏ economy was largely agrarian, and most commoners were farmers owing obligations to the state Rent—25 percent of the harvest for government-owned land and 50 percent for the privately owned land Tribute tax—local products but usually paid in cloth (de facto currency) Corvée—those between 16 and 60 se (Ch. sui) in age could be mobilized Military service—same age range Some commoners lived in hamlets required by the state to provide special goods or services In times of hardship, many commoners ran away or became slaves—some relief effort by the state and Buddhist temples was inadequate Slave status was hereditary A slave could be bought and sold, as well as inherited by the owner from the previous owner Public slaves belonged to the state—with some serving as attendants for government officials Private slaves belonged to individuals

1. Surname usage As of the ninth century, still limited to the Silla aristocracy and Head-Rank Six families, as well as frequent visitors to China Not strictly bound to the notion of patrilineage—occasionally, a female passed down her surname From the tenth century, association of surnames and ancestral seats with the aristocracy and local functionaries also strengthened the notion of patrilineal inheritance of one's surname 2. Marriage customs Political marriage Uxorilocal marriage Consanguineous marriage—among royals, even first cousins could marry though usually the couple's parents were half, rather than full, siblings 3. Royal succession The third and last known female ascension to the throne in Korean history (887), though, occurred only as a transition or temporary arrangement Female connections remained important—especially one's maternal grandfather and maternal uncles

1. Functioned as the ideology for ordering the society and morally cultivating statesmen 2. Government service examination system (958-1894) Offered tests in composition, classics recitation, technical specialties, martial skills, or Buddhist doctrines Composition test was most highly regarded Technical skills were held in lowest esteem 3. Government schools The State University (Kukchagam, founded 992) was the most prestigious education institution Publics schools of various levels in the countryside 4. Private academies Favored by the aristocracy Contributed to the decline of public schools other than the State University

1. Teachings Unlike Doctrinal (Kyo) Schools, Meditational (Ko. Sŏn, Ja. Zen) Schools taught that faith needs not be grounded in written words Stressed an individual uncovering of the spiritual essence of human mind through self-reflection and meditation Goal: the "sudden enlightenment" which is the direct, intuitive comprehension of the Buddha nature inherent in the mind of every being 2. Introduced from China to Korea in the 7th century but became popular only in the 9th century Became popular among local strongmen Temples established near the strongholds of prominent local families such as the founder of the Koryŏ Dynasty Individualistic tendencies provided an ideological basis for the assertion of their independence 3. Relations with the state and society Buddhist piety considered important for country's wellbeing The state tested and certified the clergy Wealthy temples—land, wineries, livestock, etc. 4. The doctrinal-meditational Buddhist divide in early Koryŏ Persisted due to respective prejudices Introducing the Ch'ŏnt'ae (Ch. Tiantai) School from Song China, Monk Ŭich'on (1055-1101), who was a royal prince, redefined the process of meditation toward clear perception of ultimate truth although still heavily doctrinal in its approach 5. Woodblock printing of the Tripitaka Tripitaka is the Buddhist scriptural canon in Chinese translation The first carving of woodblocks was carried out during the Liao invasions as a kind of devotional act to repel the invaders with the power of Buddha Ŭich'on collected published treatises and commentaries from Song, Liao, Koryŏ, and Japan as Supplement to the Tripitaka

1055- 1101 a royal prince who introduced the Ch'ont'ae School from Song China, was a royal prince who redefined the process of meditation toward clear perception of ultimate truth although still heavily doctrinal in its apparoch he would collect published treatises and commentaries from Song, Liao, Koryo, and Japan as Supplement to the Tripitaka

basic concept - organic landscape has energy flowing in its veins - topography reflects the channeling of this energy- some auspicious and others inauspicious - a right site for an important edifice assures good fortune 2. Toson

late 9th cen A Buddhist monk in early Koryo period, he popularized geomancy by combining it with the Buddhist idea of merit accumulation and the Daoist ideas of yin-yang and Five Elements Said to have wandered all over Korea, identifying auspicious and inauspicious sites His ideas encouraged various local strongmen, such as Wang Kŏn (King T'aejo), to believe that their home bases were auspicious and would enable them to succeed with their undertakings

As the self-proclaimed successor to Koguryŏ, the Koryŏ state honored the legendary founder of the ancient kingdom All the same, Koryŏ also laid claim to the prestigious ancient tradition of Silla—honoring the various rulers of Silla The Koryŏ state also honored other legendary figures and ancient rulers through state sponsorship—including both Tan'gun and Kija

The Silla hyangga tradition died out Instead, poems written in literary Chinese became more popular among the elite Literature at its finest was now produced and appreciated in literary Chinese—the pattern which would continue for centuries in Korea Kim Pusik and his History of the Three Kingdoms (Samguk sagi, 1145) epitomized Silla successionist ideology

The 9th and 10th centuries saw overall decline in quantity and quality of production due to sociopolitical instability a. Prayer pagodas—aristocrats and local strongmen in particular used them in worships to seek good fortune b. Buddha sculpture Many were cast in iron not gilt bronze Others were carved in stone, including rock cliffs, presumably by people on the move c.Memorial stupas and monument steles Reflected Meditational Schools' stress on transmission of enlightenment experience from the mind of the master to the disciple's—master-disciple relationship crucial Stupas stored cremated remains of a venerated master Monumental steles recorded the deeds of such an individual In the 11th century, artistic production entered a new golden age Masterpiece statues continued to be produced but in decreasing number Bronze objects—incense burners with silver inlay, ritual water jugs, and mirrors Stone memorial stupas remained popular Larger structures and sculptures such as pagodas became somewhat softer in style Paintings apparently flourished, but nothing is extant from early Koryŏ Excellent works of calligraphy Celadon ware is the crowning glory of Koryŏ artistic achievement Delicate color—particularly the jade-green pieces A wide variety of elegant shapes and designs Beautiful decorations—the distinctive Korean slip-inlay technique used Expresses the yearning for Daoistic simplicity and Buddhist tranquility 12th century was the golden age of celadon production in Korea

1. Underlying causes a. Sociocultural bias in favor of literary virtue over martial virtue b. More diverse social backgrounds of military officias c. Institutionalized discrimination against the military d. Decadent court of King Ŭijong (r. 1146-1170) dominated by a civil aristocracy mistreating the military—including an insult against General Chŏng Chungbu (1106-1179) by a son of Kim Pusik 2. The revolt (1170) a. An incident during which a military officer got mistreated by an arrogant civil official sparked the revolt b. Led by Chŏng Chungbu and two other officers, military men slaughtered those who had mistreated them c. Now in power, the military replaced Ŭijong with another king

Led the 1170 military revolt- slaughtered those who mistreated him - led by him, the military replaced Uijong with another king him and his immediate successors , 1170- 1196 - exercised power through a council of generals - still relied on admin skills of cooperating civil officials - power struggle among military leaders produced more violence - many military men were no different from decadent civil aristocrats, who exploited the people and amassed wealth

1146- 1170- he was in power when the 1170 military revolt occurred, one of the underlying causes for the military revolt was that his court was decadent- and his court dominated by civil aristocrats mistreated the military- including an insult against General Chong Chungbu by son of Kim Pusik

1196- 1258, founded by Ch'oe Ch'unghon (1149- 1219) Retained Koryŏ monarchy though the king was a figurehead Formed strategic marriage alliances Set up in-house governing institutions Possessed large estates in the fertile south Maintained personal troops, the Three Special Patrols Persecuted wealthy temples tied to the old aristocracy Crushed peasant and slave rebellions

1258- 1270 The military continued to wield paramount power The house in particular and the military in general lost power when the king and his supporters, with Mongol backing, triumphed over them

1231- 1259 1. Initial contact Mongols and Koreans collaborated against the Khitans rebelling against the Jurchen Jin Dynasty Afterward, Mongols made various demands on Koryŏ The collaboration ended with the murder of a Mongol envoy (1225) 2. Mongol invasions Initially the Koreans faced the Mongols in the open and suffered defeat Afterward, the Koreans resorted to fortification-based resistance- locking themselves up in fortresses and hold out as long as they could Determined to resist, the Ch'oe house moved the court from Kaesŏng to Kanghwa Island (1232) Subsequent Mongols invasions devastated the countryside with the people getting slaughtered or taken away as captives—both the aristocracy and the population increasingly wanted to cease resistance 3. Koryŏ submission to the Mongols A collusion of civil and military officials killed the last Ch'oe dictator (1258) The Koryŏ crown prince paid homage to Kubilai Khan (r. 1260-1294) The Koryŏ tore down fortification on Kanghwa Island and formally submitted to the Mongols (1259)

1. A generation of resistance earned some respect from the Mongols Kubilai Khan was relieved to obtain its submission Koryŏ kings subsequently married Mongol princesses 2. Fundamental differences separated the Koreans and the Mongols Koreans viewed Mongols as savages with repulsive customs Mongols imposed heavy demands on Koryŏ—material and human 3. Political situation in Koryŏ The military continued to wield power after the Koryŏ submission, keeping the capital on Kanghwa Island In 1270, the last military dictator (from Im house) was killed upon the king's order The century-long military rule finally ended The capital was moved back to Kaesŏng

In the second half of the 11th c., the Koryŏ resumed heavier-volume trade with Song China Increased agricultural productivity—more hillside and drier coastal zones got cleared for farming Spread of manufacturing Aristocratic demand for luxury goods increased Handicraft items were produced mostly by the artisans living in special hamlets However, the government-issued currency (ca. 1100) quickly fell out of use Koryŏ economy remained essentially agrarian with a limited commerce

1. Civil officials Those cooperating with the military kept power and influence Even during the Mongol invasions, the court and the aristocracy enjoyed a life of comfort and luxury on Kanghwa Island while the rest of the country suffered from Mongol onslaught 2. Military officials Formed marriage alliances among themselves and with the civil aristocracy The old civil-military distinction began blurring Many aristocratic families now producing officials in both branches of service Accumulated landed wealth by taking estates from defeated political enemies

1. Functionaries Each locality still had families performing day-to-day administrative duties on a hereditary basis As true in early Koryŏ, many functionaries became central officials through meritorious service (administrative, technical, or military) or passing the examination 2. Commoners and slaves Increased economic activity burdened commoners with more demand on their goods and services A great famine in the mid-twelfth century took a heavy toll The military rule unleashed general social unrest The coup encouraged all social groups to advance their interests Corrupt military men angered general population Commoners and slaves alike rebelled Mongol invasions ended the unrest but also produced hardship for all

1. Sexual morality Confucian notions of gender role division and chaste womanhood were not all that influential in the Koryo society- hardly matter to Korean A Song Chinese visitor in 1123, Xu Jing (Hsu Ching), found Korean sensibility vis-à-vis gender-related propriety too liberal 2. Succession and inheritance Maternal connections continued to be important A woman received a fair share of her inheritance from her father, and her husband could not touch take it from her 3. Marriage customs Marriage as an institution was neither strong nor bound by elaborate rituals Close-kin marriage persisted, although the aristocracy now shunned it Uxorilocal residence persisted Men of means had multiple wives, as well as concubines, who often lived apart Their status, as well as their children's, could be equal Widows were relatively free to remarry without social stigma

1. Relations between the new military regime and the old Buddhist establishment were tense at best 2. Rise of Chogye School Founded by Monk Chinul (1158-1210), who advocated "sudden enlightenment" followed by "gradual cultivation" Stressed both meditation and doctrine though the former more important The military favored the military the Chogye School The School spread among mountain temples 3.Monks and resistance against the Mongols Monks fought valiantly against the invaders Devotional activities produced the likes of the Koryŏ Tripitaka (1251) Monk Iryŏn (1206-1289) authored the Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms (Samguk yusa)- which stressed legends and Buddhist tales more than Kim Pusik's History of the Three Kingdoms (Samguk sagi) did <- 2nd oldest work

Founded by Monk Chinul (1158-1210), who advocated "sudden enlightenment" followed by "gradual cultivation" Stressed both meditation and doctrine though the former more important The military favored the military the Chogye School The School spread among mountain temples

1. Celadon Production Production technology was expensive Sociopolitical unrest in the 12th c. led to decline in production 2. Printing technology In the 11th c., Song China developed the world's oldest movable type printing technology using porcelain types In the 13th c., Koryŏ improved this by devising the world's oldest movable metal type printing technology—predating an analogous invention by Europe's Johannes Gutenberg (ca. 1397-1468) by two centuries From then on, the Koreans periodically cast new types, using beautifully carved calligraphic fonts

1. Dual identity Koguryŏ successionism—founding Koryŏ ideology and more geomancy-inspired groups Silla successionism—Kim Pusik and the mainstream aristocracy 2. Resolution of the tension (13th c.) Tension with the Myoch'ŏng Rebellion (1135-1136) Koguryŏ successionism faded as it became unlikely that Koryŏ would ever be a northern power Instead, a more unifying identity of the Three Han (Samhan) emerged in the twelfth century 3. Korean nationalism or proto-nationalism? Relative weakness of Song China made Koryŏ less strongly influenced by China than the preceding or succeeding Korean dynasties Foreign invasions heightened sense of Korean distinctiveness All the same, the aristocracy still maintained a sense of strong cultural affinity to the Chinese elite

The Koryŏ court made peace with the Mongols who now ruled China through a more China based empire, the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) When the military rule ended, the Three Special Patrols (Sambyŏlch'o) rebelled (1270-1273) Elevated their own king on Kanghwa Island and continued anti-Mongol resistance Joint Yuan-Koryŏ campaigns forced the rebels to move to an island off the southern shore of Korea Suppressed in 1273 Territorial loss To the Yuan, the Koryŏ ceded the north and Cheju Island Upon pleas from the Koryŏ, however, the Yuan returned the northwest and Cheju The Yuan meddled in political and military affairs of the Koryŏ Koryŏ kings married Mongol princesses The Koryŏ monarchy and government got downgraded in nomenclature and organization Yuan demands included: Precious objects Falcons Armed troops Virgin women

1270- 1351 Main objectives a. checking the power of pro- Yuan statesmen b. ending corruption among aristocratic officials c. strengthening royal power through Confucian statecraft d. increasing administrative efficiency through reorganizing the bureaucracy Executing reform proposals of neo- Confucian scholar- officials such as Yi Chehyon produced some good results this failed due to opposition by Yuan Court and many Koryo aristocrat

a neo- Confucian scholar- official with reform proposal which produced some positive results - both monarchy and bureaucracy became stronger - some illegally acquired estates were returned to owners - in 1271, began redistributing some land as salary and stipend land to the officials and others actually performing service to state - lightened tax, burden on farmers - emancipated those illegally enslaved - returned illegally acquired slaves to rightful owners

1351- 1374 - capitalizing on Yuan Dynasty's decline, re- asserted Koryo's independence - territorial reclamation > reconquered NE (1356) with help of local Korean strongman and son , Yi Songgye (future king T'aejo, 1392- 1398) > invaded Manchuria (1369- 1370) after Ming Dynasty (1368- 1644) overthrown Yuan in 1368 > conquered some Jurchen territory in NE Korea - fought off Red Turbans - repelled Yuan invasion of Korea (1364) - had to fight against Wako raids - lost will to govern after his wide died - put faith in Sin Ton - killed by his circle of decadent favorites after scandal involving one of his consorts (1374)

members of a Han Chinese secret religious society that rebelled against Yuan Dynasty and invaded Korea twice (1360, 1361- 1362)

1365, son of temple slave- initiated some radical reform measures revived the then- defunct State Confucian Academy purged aristocrats who resisted him in 1366, confiscated land and slaves from powerful families and redistributed the land while emancipating the slaves and people praised him as a sage however, mounting conservative opposition pressured him to dismiss (1369) and execute him (1371)

Conservatives elevated the boy crown prince, King U (r. 1374-1388), rumored to be Sin Ton's son The court wavered back and forth between pro-Yuan and pro-Ming policies As capable generals, Ch'oe and Yi defeated the Wakō in numerous battles, and their fame grew As two most powerful political leaders, in 1388 they joined hands and overthrew the conservatives

1388 - Ming demanded Koryo to cede all the territory that used to be controlled by the Yuan - resolute Ch'oe dispatched some 38,000 troops, commanded by Yi and other general - reaching Yalu River after failing to persuade king to recall the campaign, marched the troops back to Kaesong, stormed the palace, deposed the king, and enthroned his young boy

1388- 1892 In 1389, the Yi faction deposed the child king and enthroned a distant cousin of King Kongmin Killed the deposed child king and his father, King U (1389) Purged all political opponents, mostly moderate reformers The new Rank Land Law (Kwajŏnpŏp, 1390) streamlined the system of land tenure for incumbent officials as well as confiscating the land of defeated political enemies and redistributing it

The Koryŏ now acknowledged Ming suzerainty, and the Ming dropped the territorial demand In 1389, the Koryŏ raided the Japanese island of Tsushima, the Wakō base—100 Koryŏ warships with mounted canons destroyed 300 Wakō ships

1392- 1910 Yi Songgye took over the throne and this marks the end of the Koryo and the start of the new dynasty

founder of the Choson Dynasty in 1392 (King T'aejo), rise along with Ch'oe Yong as two most powerful political leaders and in 1388- they joinred hands to overthrow the conservatives, his power consolidated and in 1389, his faction deposed the child king and enthroned a distant cousin of King Kongmin and killed the deposed child king and his father, King U (1389)

1. capacities in which Korean visited Yuan China 2. many koreans adopted elements of Mongol culture 3. various specialists found new opportunities 4. such specialists did not constitute a new force in Koryo aristocracy 5. it became fashionable among Mongolian elite to have Korean concubine 6. whenever parents heard new that Yuan envoy was visiting Koryo, tried to marry off daughters 7. trend led to lowering of average marriage age for girls in Korea

Many came as members of a Yuan entourage Especially true among those escorting a Yuan princess married to the new Koryŏ king Included Han Chinese, Mongols, Central Asians (e.g. Uyghurs), and Muslims (could be of any ethnolinguistic background) serving as Yuan officials Some settle down in Koryŏ—and some of their descendants are known today in Korea Many Jurchens continued to settle down in Koryŏ and blend into the Korean population This trend continued for centuries in northeastern Korea Many Jurchens followed Yi Sŏnggye to Kaesŏng

end of military rule restored traditionally strong ties to aristocracy

1301- 1382 Considered the de facto founder of Chogye School of Buddhism Sought to better apply teachings of meditational Buddhism to the reality of late Koryŏ society Tried to unite nine traditional schools of Korean meditational Buddhism Advised kings Kongmin and U

Adopted by the originally shamanistic Mongols, is a Buddhism heavy on mysticism Confucian elite of Koryŏ, as well as China, generally resented the way the Mongols respected Tibetan monks whose practices were viewed as the polar opposite of those of doctrinal Buddhism Koryŏ's contacts with Yuan introduced this Koryŏ, but its influence was limited to Buddhist artwork such as rather gaudy stone pagodas

Classic Confucianism Mostly concerned with personal and social ethics Lacked an overarching metaphysical explanation on the nature of man and the universe—this was left for Buddhism and Daoism to handle Known as "Nature and Principle Learning" (Sŏngnihak), neo-Confucianism sought a balance between i (Ch. li) and ki (Ch. qi) Taking shape in the 11th century in Song China, Zhu Xi (1130-1200) produced the synthesis Stressed unity of man and heaven, as well as unity of mind and nature While recognizing the individuality or the ki of each object (including that of humans), neo-Confucianism sought to establish a hierarchy that is mutually beneficial for all beings In Koryŏ Korea, An Hyang (formerly An Yu, 1243-1306) spread neo-Confucianism Intellectual exchanges between Koryŏ and Yuan scholars in the Yuan capital further facilitated spread of neo-Confucianism in Korea Emergence of neo-Confucian scholar-officials as a political force during Kongmin's reign (1351-1374) Older scholars such as Yi Chehyŏn and Yi Saek (1328-1396) were more moderate reformers Younger scholars like Chŏng Tojŏn (1337-1398) advocated more radical reform

instrumental in enthroning Yi Songgye (King T'aejo), promoted a system wherein a set of laws regulated state and society was entrusted by thr king was killed by King T'aejo's ambitious son in 1398

King T'aejo's son, who killed Chong and others and in 1400 ascended the throng, retaining Chong's system shortly before ascending the throne- abolished all private armies (1400) and strengthened central government's direct control of all troops upon gaining throne, established the military examination (1402) system to recruit military officials

select mid- level officials wielded influence through this, critiqued policies and scrutinized conduct of kings and officials in the Choson Dynasty

1418- 1450 Taejong's son and successor, established the Hall of Worthies where talented young officials advised him by researching on administrative and legal precedents

1455- 1468 Sejong's son, replaced the Hall of Worthies when it became too powerful with Office of Special Advisors

Civil examination (munkwa) Staffed civil officialdom The most prestigious competition Military examination (mukwa) Staffed military officialdom Though its standing was equal to civil examination in principle, civilian governance remained unchallenged Licentiate examinations (saengwŏn-chinsasi, samasi) Recruited students for the State Confucian Academy (Sŏnggyun'gwan) The Academy students prepared for the civil examination Technical examinations (chapkwa) Recruited specialists in foreign languages, medicine, law, astronomy, and accounting Not held in high esteem by the aristocracy

every free male (non- lowborn) 6- 60 se in age had to perform a military duty aristocrats generally served in elite or ceremonial guard units commoners served as conscript soldiers or manual labor to each active duty serviceman, the government assigned 2-3 support tax payers responsible for provisioning him

Ming China Jurchens Japan Ryukyu Islands SE Asia

yangban chungin commoners lowborn women's status in transition

2 orders constituted the aristocracy - now one had to be born one rather than achieving it through passing an exam or holding office - dominated examination system, officialdom, and political establishment local - although descended from central officers, they many were not necessarily officeholders themselves - advised the centrally appointed magistrates with local admin - sought to maintain the local social hierarchy with themselves at top - kept watchful eyes on hereditary local functionaries whose power was weaker than them

Middle People - between yangban and commoners Although they performed specialized yet vital functions for the state, the yangban held their work in low esteem Broad definition: Government-employed technical specialists who generally lived in Seoul—mainly interpreters, physicians, jurists, astronomers, accountants, painters, and calligraphers Illegitimate children of yangban men Hereditary central and local functionaries Local elites of northern Korea Military officers from families belonging to any of the above Narrow definition:only the government technical specialists and their kin except for functionaries, in early Choson, not all were locked in their occupation/ status categories

The Rank Land Law increased the percentage of commoners They made up the majority of the population More were independent farmers than tenant farmers Tilling small plots of land, most were tax- and rent-paying farmers who struggled to get by Tax, military, and labor obligations to the state were a heavy burden on them Most had no means to pursue education, not to even mention preparing for a government service examination though no law barred them King Sejong recognized socially denigrated butchers, tanners, wicker-workers, and other outcast occupation groups as legal commoners However, the society continued to look down upon them as outcastes Also, they continued to pursue their family occupations

population - Possibly made up 30 percent of the population Depending on the neighborhood, as much as 70-80 percent of the population could be slaves if there were many large, wealthy yangban households Category included: Public and private slaves—both could be bought and sold The kisaeng—female entertainers Traveling troupe of entertainers Shamans—male and female unlike commoners, they owed no obligation to the state (e.g: tax, military, labor) unless slave was government- owned

Patrilineage and inheritance In spite of neo-Confucian effort to make Korean social organization more strictly patrilineal, elite Koreans continued to value both paternal and maternal connections Early Chosŏn genealogies record children strictly by birth order rather than gender or the mother's social status Daughters continued to receive a fair share of the inheritance Whenever a minor ascended the throne, the most senior among surviving queens became the regent as the queen dowager All the same, aristocrats generally avoided marrying someone of same surname and ancestral seat (pon'gwan) Marriage Yangban boys and girls could marry when, respectively, at least 15 and 14 se in age Royal family members could marry from age of 10 se King T'aejong began legally discriminating against concubines as distinct from a man's legal wife He also instituted legal measures against the children of concubines regardless of their father's social status Remarried women too were stigmatized Aristocratic women posed for portraits—presumably a continuation of Koryŏ practice

1390- 1466 Allocated only the land in the vicinity of Seoul to incumbent and former officials Eventually the system broke down with shortage of land, exacerbated by frequent permanent grants to those had performed extraordinary service to the state

1466- sometimes after 1592 Replaced the Rank Land Law Now only the incumbent officials received land

Each locality was responsible for certain native products that the government needed It was not easy for the state to keep accurate record of any change and assign proper quota

the tribute tax system Involved middlemen merchants who, as tribute contractors, procured local products and sold them to the governments for profit The new system allowed more room for profit-making and even corruption among merchants, functionaries, and officials The system also stimulated commerce

Utilization of the late Koryŏ advances in technology More reservoirs and water mills Government offices used rain gauges to measure and record rain fall to better understand local conditions and plan for the future Greater variety of grain and fertilizer More sophisticated transplanting techniques Continuing dissemination of knowledge through published farming manuals Increased cotton production Cotton clothing became common Bolts of cotton also functioned as de facto currency Expansion of animal husbandry—more large farms raising horses, oxen, or sheep

Artisans of special hamlets of late Koryŏ now became conditional commoners Some worked for the government Others worked for private clients Other artisans remained slaves, public or private Large market districts appeared in Seoul Monopoly merchants and purveyors supplied goods for government agencies Back peddlers traveled around the country, buying and selling smaller goods In the late 15th century, rural markets bean to appear—each market usually opened every 5 days The government restricted foreign trade Generally limited to officially permitted transactions with China, Japan, and Southeast Asia Government personnel and merchants who accompanied the official envoy engaged in such trade, generally very profitable

1) As the "Nature and Principle Learning" rooted in the Chinese Confucianism of Song and Yuan periods, neo-Confucianism became more influential: a. The Four Books and the Five Classics still made up the canon b. More radical neo-Confucian scholars and officials, such as Chŏng Tojŏn, attacked Buddhism and shamanism 2) All the same, scholar-officials continued to pursue older Chinese Confucian traditions a.Many Chosŏn scholar-officials still pursued the Classical Prose (Guwen), emulating the writing conventions of the Han and Tang dynasties b. Policymakers also produced compendia and manuals covering various aspects of life c. Kings, too, were more earnest in their effort to seek policy advice (especially agriculture) from people from all walks of life 3) The rise of sarim ("rusticated literati") a.In the late 15th century, more idealistic, reform-minded neo-Confucian scholars began to make inroads into court politics b.They sought to hold the conduct of kings and statesmen to a higher moral standard—especially upholding the righteousness and principle i.Admired Koryŏ loyalists who had refused to serve the Chosŏn dynasty ii.Also honored those who had stood up against King Sejo's usurpation of the throne c. Locally, they promoted harmonious, self-regulated rural communities and kin groups

The monk examination (sŭngkwa) continued to license Buddhist clergy and regulated its hierarchy The government's discriminatory measures against Buddhism Reorganized Buddhist schools into just 2—the Doctrinal School (Kyojong) and the Meditational School (Sŏnjong) Shut down many temples, confiscating land and slaves Prohibited Buddhist clergy from entering the capital Nonetheless, Buddhism retained significance influence Until the late 15th century, Chosŏn kings were all buried with Buddhist rituals, and some were devout Buddhists themselves—including kings T'aejo, Sejong, and Sejo Even some yangban men were sympathetic to Buddhism, if not practicing Overall, Buddhism enjoyed greatest popularity among women across status boundaries, as well as men of lower social status

King Sejo's patronage Having usurped the throne from his young nephew, Sejo came under attack from more idealistic neo-Confucians While remaining more aloof toward Confucians, Sejo took an active interest in Daoism, as well as Buddhism and legalism A man of martial prowess, Sejo also saw Daoism as a philosophy conducive to martial training and discipline He even had his officials read Daoist texts Limited influence of Daoism in Korea The yangban aristocracy as a whole, however, kept distance toward Daoism As true before, Daoism remained closely tied to Buddhism and shamanism in many beliefs and rituals

The state sponsored the worship of the legendary founders of various ancient kingdoms 2. The government appointed appropriate officials b. Each such worship received government funding At the same time, the worship of Tan'gun, the legendary founder of Old Chosŏn kingdom, assumed importance greater than ever before Although performing ritual obligations as a tributary of the Ming Chinese empire, the Chosŏn Korean elite showed pride in their ancient kingdoms and legendary rulers

Medicine—more manuals explaining various therapies and indigenous herbs appeared in print Astronomy Important not only for farming but also for its alleged link to the political order on earth—only the Chinese emperor could issue a new calendar each year Sejong commissioned observatories, sundials, water clocks, and calendars to improve observations and understanding of various natural phenomena Astronomical phenomena such as an eclipse no longer caused panic Weaponry The state continued to develop new firearms, including "fire carts" (hwach'a) capable of shooting 100 projectiles at once for the range of 1 kilometer (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQhSXA3AKh4) Constructed turtle ships, which were iron-plated warships, and utilized them for the Tsushima expedition Once Korea entered a long era of peace in the late 15th century, however, military technology declined Printing Both moveable type and wood block printing technologies facilitated mass publication Produced many books on history, cartography, geography, and rituals

Contributing factors King Sejong's Hall of Worthies scholars researching on various East Asian languages came to understand better all the peculiarities of Korean Sejong wanted to devise a script based on principles of yin and yang, as well as the Five Elements He also recognized a greater need for making the wealth of published knowledge accessible to ordinary people Sejong's preface to the Teaching Correct Sounds to the People (Hunmin chŏngŭm) and Chŏng Inji (1396-1478)'s postscript in the same work articulate such intentions of the king The aristocratic opposition The yangban aristocracy as a whole resisted Han'gŭl for the reasons as expressed in a memorial from Ch'oe Malli (n.d.-1445) Throughout the Chosŏn period, classical Chinese remained the written language of choice for the educated elite Nonetheless, Han'gŭl survived, and lower-class men and literate women of all social classes as well as some yangban men used it Only in the late 19th century would the usage of Han'gŭl among aristocratic men become more common and socially accepted

1494- 1637 Politics and society -Examination system assumed greater importance and prestige, though the yangban aristocracy virtually monopolized it -The yangban, now the aristocracy, avoided taxes, labor, and military obligations to the state to the extent that commoner peasants were overburdened Culture -Neo-Confucianism was the orthodox ideology for the state and elite society -Buddhism and shamanism remained the religion of the common people and women -More heterodox Confucian ideas and Daoism, but none replaced Neo-Confucianism Foreign relations -The Jurchens in the north became more aggressive, with more frequent raids -Permitted a limited trade, unruly Japanese traders sometimes rioted in and raided coastal areas -The Sino-Japanese-Korean War (1592-98) took a heavy toll on Korea -The first and second Korean-Manchu wars (1627, 1636-37) forced defeated Korea to shift tributary obligation from the Ming to the Manchu (formerly Jurchen) Qing Dynasty (1616-1912), now the new master of China

1637- 1724 Relations with Tokugawa Japan Normalized ties Exchange of envoys Japan saw Korea as sending tribute/gift missions Korea saw Japan as a beneficiary of benevolent, culturally superior Korea Forced transfer of tributary obligations from the Ming to the Qing Korea went through the motions Emotionally, though, the Korean elite continued to honor the legacies of the Ming Also, the Korean elite increasingly saw its country as the "Little China" (So Chunghwa), now that China was under "barbarian" Manchu rule Increasingly hereditary court factions argued over: Foreign policy Royal succession Proper rituals Economic policy Socioeconomic developments Liberalized economy produced more private enterprises Many commoners achieved wealth and local influence Cultural trends Some stayed well within the bounds of neo-Confucian orthodoxy, others developed more flexible attitudes Daoism—warfare, epidemics, and famine spurred many to turn to Daoism as a philosophy for healing of body Practical Learning (Sirhak) critiqued Neo-Confucianism Catholicism grew from a Western Learning to a popular religion The Little China ideology saw Korea as the guardian of the Way

(r. 1724-76) The Policy of Impartiality promoted capable men across factional divides Sought to have the government, rather than the aristocracy, exercise military command Promoted more chungin ("middle people") though still of limited influence

(r. 1776-1800) The Kyujanggak, a new royal library, hired talented illegitimate sons to research and advisory roles Suwŏn project envisioned a new capital

Social mobility accelerated Economy became more liberalized with increased private commercial activity

In the 18th century, within the Practical Learning arose the Northern Learning Starting with political outsider yangban, the Catholic faith gradually spread to the masses in the 18th century Catholicism National Learning (Kukhak) focused on Korean history, language, and culture Intellectuals wrote works in agriculture, medicine, botany, zoology, military technology, mathematics, astronomy

1800- 73 Korea in turmoil, 1800-64 Monopolization of political power by royal in-laws during the four successive ascensions of a minor to the throne Widespread governmental corruption Social unrest climaxing with riots and rebellions Spread of Catholicism symptomatic of discontent Aftermath: Korea since 1864 Reform toward building a modern nation-state, 1864-1905 Korea as a Japanese protectorate (1905-10) and colony (1910-45) The U.S. and Soviet occupation (1945-48) Rise of South Korea (Republic of Korea) as a major player in the international political economy, since 1948 Emergence of North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) as an isolated, totalitarian state, since 1948