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standard biography

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going to school, completing an educational program, getting a job, then retiring (for women the work would be broken up by times focused on childbearing/care)

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elective biography

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the current life stages (education, work or more education, unemployment and maybe going back to school, etc.)

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Simple Moral Education Programs

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A type of character education where an instructor discusses moral questions with students. This type of program has limited success.

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Community-Based Education Programs

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A community-centered approach to character education that attempts to apply what the students learn in the classroom to everyday life.

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Character Education Programs

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Programs which teach students about different positive character traits and how to apply them to their lives.

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Two-Store Model

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Developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin. A model of memory that includes three interacting components (sensory register, working memory, and long-term memory) that together process external information. Although there are three parts, only two of them (working and long-term) are used for memory storage.

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Sensory Register

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According to the Two-Store Model, this is the first phase of memory processing. This part of memory temporarily holds all sensory information.

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Iconic Storage Register

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The sensory register for visual information. It has a maximum storage capacity of 1 second.

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Echoic Storage Register

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The sensory register for auditory information. It has a maximum storage capacity of 4 seconds.

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Attention

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Consciously focusing on specific stimuli. This process prevents irrelevant information from interfering with one's cognitive processes.

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Working or Short-Term Memory

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The second level of processing, and the first level of information storage, in the Two-Store Model. At this level, the person is consciously perceiving certain aspects of the external world. In adults, this kind of memory holds up to seven, plus or minus two, bits of information (5 in kids). This information must be rehearsed in order to keep it for more than 20 seconds.

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Maintenance or Rote Rehearsal

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Repeating information in the same way it was received. This is the first type of rehearsal to develop in children, but has been found to be an inefficient method of transferring information into long-term memory.

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Elaborative Encoding

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A method of rehearsal where one retains information in short-term memory by relating it to previously learned knowledge. This is a much more effective way to retain information for long periods of time.

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chunking

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Combining information into larger and more meaningful units, can increase the size of the bits. This will help you to hold "more" in your working/short-term memory.

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Automaticity

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The ability to perform a task automatically, with little or no conscious effort.

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Encoding

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The process of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory by developing meaningful relationships and patterns in the data that relate to one's previous knowledge.

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Perception

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The act of assigning meaning to information by interpreting it based on what one already knows.

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Long-Term Memory

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An unlimited cognitive storage system for retaining permanent records of information deemed important. According to the Two-Store Model, this is the third level of processing and the second level of storage.

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Semantic Memory

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A division of long-term memory for storing factual knowledge (generic school-like facts).

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Episodic Memory

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A division of long-term memory for storing events in one's life (more personal and memorable).

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Procedural Memory

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A division of long-term memory for storing rules and methods or performing specific tasks (these rules and knowledge are referred to as productions).

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schemata

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Within the long-term memory storage files, information is organized into these which are abstract sores of information. They often contain general information about the world and information about specific events. These can help you to relate existing information to new situations.

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well-formed/specific schemata

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Provides the person with clear, useful expectations about situations and leads to comprehension and understanding of those situations.

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poorly formed/vague schemata

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typically lead to unclear and uncertain learning because the person is unable to use/rely on previously learned information to make judgement and predictions about a current related situation/information

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subschemata

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bits of information that make up a schemata/when schemata is broken into smaller parts

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Retrieval

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Bringing information out of long-term memory.

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enhancing learning at the initial stage of learning

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emphasize drilling, practice, and repetition of new skills and concepts until students can apply and use this knowledge automatically.

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multimodal learning experiences

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learning through using various senses and situations

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dual coding hypothesis

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Based on research by Clark and Paivio (1991). People can learn and recall concrete words more easily than abstract ones because concrete words are encoded both visually and verbally.

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analogies

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They help people see similarities between new and previously learned information.

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the 5 mnemonic devices

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rhyming, acronym (first letters of the terms turned into a "word"), acrostic (first letters of the terms turned into a sentence), method of loci (connect terms to a visual tour of a well know place, such as your house), keyword

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forgetting

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caused by new information interfering and decay (info fading away). The more retrieval cues associated with the information, the easier it will be to recall.

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Proactive Interference

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A kind of forgetting where previously learned information interferes with the retrieval of new information.

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Retroactive Interference

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A kind of forgetting where new information interferes with the retrieval of previously learned information.

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well-defined vs. poorly defined problem

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the first has a clear goal and possible strategies to reach that goal, the second has an unclear goal

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routine vs. nonroutine problem

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like a well-defined versus poorly defined problem; absolute solution (right answer) vs. open ended

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IDEAL strategy

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by Bransford and Stein (1993). Used for problem solving. Identify-problems and opportunities, Define- goals and clearly represent the problem, Explore- possible strategies to solve the problem, Anticipate- outcomes and act, Look- back and learn.

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means-ends analysis

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(sometimes preceded by focusing on only the most important/relevant information) you look at where you want to be, look at where you are, figure out how to get to where you want to be, then do it.

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graphic representations

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these can help illustrate a problem and can be a useful approach to clarifying a solution. creativity and looking at problems from different angles is an invaluable skill in problem solving.

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functional fixedness

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inability to see new uses for familiar objects (ex. unable to find screwdriver, but can't use a quarter because that is what a screwdriver is for)

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response set

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responding in a certain way to situations because it is familiar to you/the way it was done in the past

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problem solving strategies

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brainstorming, algorithms (a step-by-step process to achieve the goal), heuristics (general strategies to use in problem solving that only sometimes leads to the correct answer/solution), working backwards (starting with the goal and working backwards to get the initial question/problem), and talking about/through the problem/situation

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transfer of information

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how the things a person has learned effects and is applied to new situations/problems

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positive, negative, and zero transfer of information

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is constructive and makes new learning easier, previously learned information interferes with new learning which is often very similar too similar to what was previously learned, and when previously learned info has no effect/relevance to new information

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specific and general transfer

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transfer of information which is used in the almost the same way as it was learned and the second is when it is used in a new way

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Pavlov's classical conditioning

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(sometimes called type S conditioning because of the importance of the stimulus) Making a connection between two stimuli. The US already produces the UR which is the desired response to the neutral stimulus. {First letter = unconditioned(maybe UC)/conditioned Second letter = stimulus/response} Before conditioning: US -> UR Conditioning: neutral stimulus [-> no response] + US -> UR After learning: CS -> CR (unless the original S is taken away)

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law of effect

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by Thorndike. If a behavior is followed by a desirable change in the environment, it is likely that the behavior will be repeated in future similar situations (and not likely if there was an undesirable change).

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low-road transfer & high-road transfer

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one skill helps you master a similar skill (almost automatically applied to a similar situation) & applying learned rules and strategies to new situations

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type R (response) or operant conditioning

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Thorndike, then Watson (often considered the founder of behaviorism), then Skinner. -Reinforcement is to increase (+) the behavior. -Punishment is to decrease (-) the behavior. -Positive is introducing something. -Negative is taking away something.

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metacognition

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knowing and doing methods of learning/remember efficiently and effectively

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mastery learning approach

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studying material until you have developed automaticity with it (by Bloom [1968]. after reaching automaticity they can do enrichment activities, such as independent study. students should focus on the most important material, be alerted about the specific preformance-based criteria, which will increase student success and give them more control over their learning outcomes.)

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Premack principle

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in conditioning, a preferred activity should be used to strengthen a less preferred behavior (use the fun as a reward)

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Shaping

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A form of behavioral modification for getting a subject to start performing a preferable behavior by reinforcing components of the desired behavior and gradually rewarding more discriminatively.

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time-out

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removing the student from the class setting but keeping them in the room (able or unable to see what is happening) or moving the student to a low stimulus (but safely monitored) setting. Doing this for a certain period of time as negative punishment because the attention from the other students is reinforcing the wrong behavior.

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token economy

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a positive reinforcement strategy. good behaviors rewarded with a token which can be exchanged for rewards

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Contingency Contracting

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A form of behavioral modification where the teacher and student create a contract specifying certain academic goals and the rewards or privileges that will be given once the goals are reached.

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Response-Cost System

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A form of negative punishment where something wanted by the student will be taken away if he or she behaves in an undesirable way.

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Planned Ignoring

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A form of behavioral modification where the teacher will purposely ignore any disruptive behavior by a student to try to eradicate the behavior. (not effective with children who are seriously troubled, highly disruptive, or aggressive)

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Corporal Punishment

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The use of physical punishment. (this is questionable effective and should be used with great caution)

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reinforcers

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anything that increases the likelihood of the behavior occurring again -Positive (reward) -Negative (something unpleasant to the person which is taken away when the person does the target behavior) -Primary (related to survival: food, water, etc.) -Secondary (a neutral stimulus paired with a primary reinforcer) -Generalized (a secondary reinforcer paired with more than one primary reinforcer)

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reciprocal determinism

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(by Bandura 1986) An important part of social-cognitive approach to personality. It shows that (1) how people think, (2) how people act, and (3) what their environment is like all interact to influence the consistency of behavior.

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Expected Outcomes

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The results one expects from different behaviors. (these can become reinforces or punishment)

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observational learning

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We can learn from seeing others (models) learn. Learning vicariously (by watching what happens to models as a resault of their behavior) gives us opportunity for more learning

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Direct Modeling

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Merely imitating another person's behavior without understanding its meaning.

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Symbolic Modeling

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Behaving like someone in a book or movie. (for example: buying a certain brand of shoes because there was an ad where a famous athlete did amazing feats while wearing those shoes)

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Synthesized Modeling

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Integrating parts of the behaviors from several models to form a new behavioral set.

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vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment

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seeing others reinforced or punished for certain behaviors influences how the viewer behaves

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inhibition

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a person voluntarily stopping behaviors based on seeing the consequences someone else had for doing those behaviors

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performance standards

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self-regulation that should be moderately difficult in order to have the best balance of challenge and achievement

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perceived self-efficacy

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what a person thinks they are capable and incapable of doing. this is not necessarily the same as their real self-efficacy. (when a teacher has high s__-e__ it is called teaching efficacy)

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feedback loop

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a redirection of behavior to make the behavior more correctly match the behavior of the model

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self-reinforcement

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creates a sense of personal accomplishment and is very motivating

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first organization, then adaptation, and finally equilibrium

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first making sense out of the world and putting it into schemes/schemata, then making necessary adjustments as we learn more, and finally everything fits and makes sense

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accommodation and assimulation

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modifying an existing scheme and taking new information from the world and incorporating it into an existing scheme. these work to solve disequilibrium and are an important part of cognitive development.

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Maturation

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The natural physical changes that occur due to a person's genetic code.

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Sensorimotor stage

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0-2 years old. Lacks concept of object permanence until the end of this stage (understanding that objects continue to exist even when their presence can't be sensed) & knows what they can do with their senses. goal-oriented (doing things to get a certain outcome) and imitating others. Piaget.

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Pre-Operational stage

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2-6or7 years old. They think symbolically (e.g. language), no conservation (an objects mass, volume, weight, etc. doesn't change because its appearance changes), are egocentric (have trouble seeing things from others' perspectives), centration (focus on one object/event), no reversibility (starting at the conclusion and working back to the start), no transformation (an object changing form is still the same object). Piaget.

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Concrete Operational stage

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6or7-11or12 years old. Piaget defines an "operation" is a logical thought. The child now thinks logically about things that are "concrete" (not algebra) and understands conservation, reversibility, class inclusion (objects being related to each other, ex. fruits that look very different are still all fruits), seriation (organizing objects in a sequential order), transitivity (inferring, based on other info, relationships between two things even though it has not been said to be true), classification (organizing/grouping objects based on common characteristics). Piaget.

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Formal Operations stage

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Starts at about 12 years old. Full cognitive development is expected by age 15. They can think scientifically and hypothetically about abstract concepts. Piaget.

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Internalization

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by Vygotsky. The process of taking in and integrating information from the environment.

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Zone of Proximal (or Potential) Development (ZPD)

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The difference between (real life skills and potential) the skills a child develops alone and those that can be learned with the help of someone knowledgeable. This concept was developed by Vygotsky.

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Static Assessment Approach

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A method of assessing how much students know by giving them closed-ended response questions they are to answer by themselves (without any help or feedback).

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Dynamic Assessment Perspective

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A method of assessing how much students know in which the teacher will assist them in the problem-solving process. (assessing the student takes into consideration the child's ability to use the feedback to get the right answer)

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learning potential assessment device

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by Feuerstein 1979. this uses the dynamic assessment perspective to evaluate children's cognitive characteristics

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Mediated Learning Experiences (MLE)

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A teaching method developed by Feuerstein where the teacher/parent will intervene between the student and the learning task. In this method, the teacher will help the student make inferences about the world based on different experiences. This can also be done either by the student imitating the teacher or by working together with peers (which is called collaborative learning).

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self-talk

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aka private speech. children use this to guide their thinking patterns and behaviors. as they get older, this becomes internalized into an inner speech system that focuses their attention, assists with planning and concept formation, and helps them develop self control.

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trust vs. mistrust

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0-1 year old. dependence on others Determining if others are reliable. Erikson.

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autonomy vs. doubt and shame

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1-3 years old. capable of self control Determining how you are allowed to exercise freewill. Erikson.

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initiative vs. guilt

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3-5 years old. can set goals Determining if initiative is encouraged. Erikson.

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industry vs. inferiority

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6-11 years old. can reason and likes success Determining whether or not you are praised and taught to do so. And developing competence regarding various tasks. Erikson.

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identity vs. role confusion

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12-18 years old (adolescence). can reflect on identity and consider multiple roles Determining if you are willing to make an effort to integrate all of those roles. And understanding who you as an individual are (often influenced by the culture and time the person lives in). Erikson.

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intimacy vs. isolation

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18-35 years old (early adulthood). ready to break away from family and form new intimate relationships Determining if you are ready to share yourself or not. Erikson.

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generativity vs. stagnation

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36-55 years old (middle adulthood). kids are gone - you're free Determining whether or not you are going to show interest in others. (some people, who successfully pass this stage, take on a career that focuses on helping others during this stage) Erikson.

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integrity vs. despair

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Starts at 55 years old (old age). reflecting on your life Determining if you are going to accept it all or not. Erikson.

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Erikson's theory of psycho-social development

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Also holds that disequilibrium is necessary for change. People have the same basic needs and a person's sense of self develops in response to these needs. Says people go through 8 stages in their life (each involving a different crisis). Depending on how the person deals with/comes out of each stage determines and develops their personality. Its main problem is that it does not address cultural relativity (differences in various cultures) which might effect the validity of these stages.

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continuous schedualing

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given reinforcement/reward every time they do the target behavior. this is not very practical and becomes extinct quickly after the reward is taken away (intermittent scheduling is better)

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reinforcement schedule (ratio, interval; fixed or variable)

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rules for determining when reinforcement will be given [re: Operant Conditioning] (determined by how many times the response has been made, the amount of time since the last reinforcement; stays constant or changes)

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fixed ratio (FR), variable ratio (VR), fixed interval (FI), variable-interval (VI)

answer

every Xth time, on average every Xth time (this shows the greatest durability and resistance to extinction), available to be given X amount of time after the last one was given, available to be given on average X amount of time after the last one was given.

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positive punishment vs. negative punishment

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adding something negative vs. removing something desirable both in order to decrease the undesirable behavior punishment is considered questionable effective and should be used with great caution as it can lead to emotional misconceptions, etc.

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Preconventional

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by Kohlberg (1984). The first level of Moral Reasoning guided by rewards and punishments. This level is further divided into: stage 1 - (ages 7-10) adherence to rules to please authority figures & stage 2 - follow rules that satisfy yourself.

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Conventional

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by Kohlberg (1984). The second level of Moral Reasoning guided by strict adherence to rules. Divided into two stages: stage 3 - conformity to group expectations & stage 4 - (teenagers) following rules because they promote social order.

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Postconventional

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by Kohlberg (1984). The third level of Moral Reasoning guided by adherence to overarching moral principles. Divided into two stages: stage 5 - (he believed that only 20% of adolescents reach this stage) realization that they are part of a large society where everyone deserves rights, and morals are relative rather than absolute & stage 6 - (he believed that only few people attain this level) obeying universal moral laws and principles that span across all cultures.

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Gilligan's model of moral development

answer

(1982) men and women differ in how they view and interpret moral decision making (men: general principles and competitive; women: interpersonal perspective emphasizing caring, compassion, and relationships) three stages women go through (not always reaching the third stage): concerned with their own welfare and advancement, then self-sacrifice and concern for other people, and third balancing commitment to others and self-caretaking. Research regarding whether or not this is true is mixed.

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adolescence

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Beginning with the onset of puberty, the most difficult times in a person's life, too old to be treated as a child but too young to be completely independent, emotional confusion and uncertainty,lots of physical, social, and intellectual changes. Transition from Piaget's concrete operational and formal operational stages of cognitive development & this is Erikson's identity vs. role confusion stage in his theory of psycho-social development . Marsh (1993) they develop concepts about themselves in these areas: academic and verbal, academic mathematics, parent relations, same gender relationships, and opposite gender relationships.

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Foreclosure

answer

by Marcia (1991) based on Erikson's identity stage. A level of identity status where one has created his or her identity based on the opinions of others (mainly parents), not on personal choice.

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Identity Diffusion

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by Marcia (1991) based on Erikson's identity stage. A level of identity status where one has no idea who he or she is, and has not made any significant effort to find out.

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Moratorium

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by Marcia (1991) based on Erikson's identity stage. A level of identity status where the adolescent is actively trying out different beliefs, behaviors, and lifestyles to discover his or her identity, but has not made any definite commitments.

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Identity Achievement

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by Marcia (1991) based on Erikson's identity stage. A level of identity status where the adolescent has finally created his or her own personal identity.

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Personal Fable

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A common misconception among adolescents that they are destined for fame and fortune.

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Invincibility Fallacy

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A common misconception among adolescents that they are not vulnerable to the bad things that happen to other people.

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Imaginary Audience Fallacy

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A common misconception among adolescents that everyone is constantly watching and scrutinizing the their behavior.

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popular, rejected, controversial, and neglected adolescents

answer

by Newcomb, Bukowski, & Pattee (1993). -socially skilled and well liked by peers, -typically don't fit in with their peer group because of high verbal or physical aggression and are highly withdrawn socially, -often socially engaged but show aggressive behaviors at times which makes peer feelings toward them quite mixed, -less social and less aggressive than their peers which causes them to be overlooked by their peers

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adolescent relationships with peers

answer

Girls: ages 11-13 participate in joint activities with other boys and girls, at 14-16 they focus on developing emotional intimacy with their female friends, putting an emphasis on trust, at about age 17, relationships with female friends shifts to those with similar personalities to themselves. Boys: are oriented toward joint activities with others, individual achievement and personal independence are important for them in their relationships with others.

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Gender Role Identity

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The set of social and behavioral norms for each gender held by society. One's self-perception of his or her gender (which is often heavily shaped by society).

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Gender Bias

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The belief that one gender is better than the other.

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ADHD (attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder)

answer

inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity types: -predominately hyperactive-impulsive type (exhibits the second and third traits) -predominately inattentive type (just exhibits the first characteristic) -combined type (shows all three traits)

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dysthymia

answer

aka dysthymic disorder aka depression generally: girls will withdraw and be emotionally distant & boys will become aggressive verbally or behaviorally

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language system & communication

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the first must contain a grammar (a system of rules that govern how the language is expressed), and it also must be productive & the second involves the exchange of feelings and thoughts through verbal and nonverbal expressions (including gestures)

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arbitrary & discrete

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there is not necessarily a similarity between a word or sentence and what it refers to specifically & the language system can be subdivided into recognizable parts (sentences, phrases, words)

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Phonemes & Morphemes

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The smallest unit of sound that affects a word's meaning. & The smallest meaningful units in a language.

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Phonology & Syntax

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The process of putting together different sounds in a meaningful way. & The proper arrangement of words in a sentence.

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Pragmatics

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The study of the social aspects of language use.

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Semantics

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The study of the meaning behind words.

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Cooing

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Spontaneous noises an infant makes which include all of the sounds from every different language.

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Babbling

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Spontaneous noises an infant makes which include only the sounds found in his or her native language. (starts at about 1 year old)

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Holophrastic Speech

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The use of a single word to represent an entire thought. This kind of speech is found in young children. (most children have a 30-100 word vocabulary by 18 months of age)

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Overextension

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when a child uses one word to cover many different concepts and meanings (for example: calling all animals a cat)

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telegraphic speech

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two word expressions (which are not fully grammatical) begins 15-30 months of age (sometimes sooner)

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Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

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Chomsky's concept of an innate, prewired mechanism in the brain that allows children to acquire language naturally (he acknowledges critical periods during which it is important for children to not have interference while developing)

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Behavioral Theory

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A theory which states that the primary source of motivation is extrinsic, or external, rewards.

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Human Needs Theory

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A theory which states that the primary source of motivation is internal needs. Based on Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

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Deficiency Needs

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One of the two divisions of human needs according to Maslow. These needs are survival (food, water, warmth), safety (freedom from danger), belonging (acceptance from others), and self-esteem (approval from others).

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Growth Needs

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One of the two divisions of human needs according to Maslow. These needs are intellectual achievement, aesthetic appreciation (understanding and appreciating the beauty and truth in the world), and self-actualization (becoming all that one can be. he said few people ever reach this which is the highest level).

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Attribution Theory

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A theory which states that how people view the world determines their motivation and behavior. This theory attempts to explain how people account for their successes and failures. In general, people attribute their successes to their innate abilities, while they blame their failures on the situation or other people involved.

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ability, effort, difficulty of the task, and luck

answer

these are typically attributed as the cause of successes or faluires. the first two are within the person's control but the second two are not

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Internal and External Locus of Control

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According to the Attribution Theory: a person considers success or failure to be within his or her control and the second considers success or failure to be outside of their control.

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stability & responsibility

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according to the attribution theory, the first means that the cause of success or failure remains the same over time and across different situations, the second is whether the student can control the causes leading to success or failure.

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Social Learning and Expectancy

answer

A theory that proposes there are both external and internal motivational factors. According to this theory, there are two components behind motivation: the personal value of the endeavor and one's perceived ability to accomplish it.

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Achievement Motivation

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The degree to which a student desires and actively strives to excel and succeed. (this is viewed in one of two ways, either it is a stable and unconscious trait that has a strong influence on the person or it is a set of conscious values and beliefs shaped by the person's experiences)

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intrinsic and extrinsic

answer

inward (like working for rewards within oneself) and outward (like working for rewards recognizable by others) regarding motivation, working for intrinsic rewards is much more effective and lasting.

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Learned Helplessness

answer

by Seligman (1975). Students with this condition have learned that their efforts are all in vain and have given up trying to study by themselves.

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anxiety

answer

sometimes this is normal and helpful in learning, but excessive amounts of this can inhibit learning

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nature-nurture controversy

answer

both contribute to differences in intelligence and there is interaction between them (genetics may limit learning after a certain point) biologically built vs. enviornment

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Socioeconomic Status

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One's social and economic standing, including one's class, race, and education (of of students' parents). SES is highly influential on students' success in school, with those from low-SES families performing below their high-SES classmates.

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fluid intelligence

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by Cattell (1971). a general ability to solve new problems and tasks

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crystallized intelligence

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by Cattell (1971). the amount of education a person has accumulated over the years

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Structure of Intellect (SOI)

answer

by Guilford (1967) which consists of 150 types of intelligence. It says that all types of intelligence can be organized along three dimensions: 4 content areas (such as visual, auditory, or symbolic), 5 cognitive operations areas (such as memory, cognition, or evaluation), 6 product areas (such as units, relations, or systems). It emphasizes memory for factual information and definitions instead of concepts and principles.

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Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

answer

A theory which proposes that there are eight different kinds of cognitive intelligence, none of which are necessarily correlated. The intelligence are linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spacial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.

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Triarchic Theory

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A theory of intelligence by Sternberg which views intelligence as consisting of three components: processing components (strategies to solve problems), contextual components (applying intelligence to everyday problems), and experimental components (intelligence is modified my social, educational, and emotional factors).

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IQ scores

answer

http://www.iqtestforfree.net/images/iq_bell_curve.gif mentally defective → borderline range → below average → average (100) → above average → superior → very superior standard deviation of 15 points

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standardization or norms-based referencing

answer

based on a comparison between test takers of the same age

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intelligence quotient (IQ)

answer

mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100 (to eliminate the decimal point)

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Aptitude Tests

answer

Tests designed to evaluate a student's present performance and predict how well the person will perform in the on activities or programs (for example, a test to see if the student is ready for college).

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Achievement Tests

answer

Tests designed to measure a student's completion or a particular course or subject area.

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Tracking

answer

Grouping students into different classes based on aptitude test scores. (this has been criticized because it tends to lead to discrimination and demotivating "lower track students")

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divergent thinking

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the ability to present many different ideas, answers, or solution strategies to solve a problem

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synthetic intelligence

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one of the three types of intelligence that creativity relies on (Sternburg & Lubart 1995). the ability to see problems in novel ways

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Analytical Intelligence

answer

one of the three types of intelligence that creativity relies on (Sternburg & Lubart 1995). The ability to see useful relationships between different ideas or aspects of a problem and apply new information to problems.

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Practical Intelligence

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one of the three types of intelligence that creativity relies on (Sternburg & Lubart 1995). The ability to create new methods of dealing with everyday problems (generate ideas) based on one's prior experiences and feedback from others.

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minority group

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represents either a racial or ethnic group of people who live within a larger society of people who are different ethnic background. (race is an important factor of an individual's development, but just because people are of the same race/ethnicity does not mean that they have the same culture/outlook on life. And cultural differences can create conflict.)

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At-Risk Students

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Students who are in danger of failing to complete a basic education needed for operating successfully in society. (often males from low SES backgrounds who has been held back in one or two grades, they also display expected signs)

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Exceptional Learners

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Students with learning difficulties who require special attention to reach their fullest potentials.

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Instructional Objectives

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Clear and specific learning objectives that ensure both the teacher and the student stay on track.

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Educational Goals

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General statements about the skills and abilities the student should have after completing the course.

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taxonomy

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a comprehensive classification system developed to guide teachers in organizing goals and objectives in a logical and sequenced way. the three types are: cognitive objectives (emphasizes intellectual skills and gaining knowledge), affective objectives (deals with values and important issues in life), and psychomotor objectives (focuses on development of physical abilities).

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Externalizing and Internalizing Behavior Disorders

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Students with these disorders are angry, defiant, and hostile, seemingly unable to follow the teacher's rules. (three times as many boys have this than girls) & Students with these disorders are depressed, anxious, and withdrawn, lacking confidence.

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Learning Disabilities

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Disabilities that effect children with average or above average intelligence who nevertheless have difficulty with some aspect of learning, such as reading, writing, or solving problems.

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mild, moderate, & severe and profound metal retardation

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the former classifications for these children based on their IQ test score (50-69, 35-49, 34 or lower)

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Mental Retardation

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A medical condition present after birth that causes the child to reason or to cope with social situations far below average.

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Intermittent, Limited, Extensive, & Pervasive Mental Retardation

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needing educational care on an as-needed basis, requiring consistent educational support (over a limited time span), needing daily help and support in school, requiring constant high-intensity educational support to pass through school (and sometimes other life help services)

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Speech and Language Communication Disorders

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Disorders characterized by difficulty communicating, either by having trouble expressing oneself or by being unable to properly receive information.

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Expressive Disorders

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Language disorders characterized by difficulty forming sounds or coherent sentences. (Including stuttering and mispronouncing words.)

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Receptive Language Disorders

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Language disorders characterized by trouble understanding spoken language.

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Articulation Difficulties

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A speech disorder where you have difficulty pronouncing the correct sound or substituting with an incorrect sound.

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Fluency Disorders

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A speech disorder where you have difficulty forming smooth connections between words (such as stuttering).

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Voice Disorders

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A speech disorder where you have difficulty speaking due to an obstruction of air in the nose or throat.

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Visual Impairment

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Disorder affecting a child's sight and which is not correctable with glasses or surgery. (legally blind is 20/200 or worse vision in the better eye with corrective devices. it is estimated that 80% of legally blind children can read large print [Levin 1996])

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Hearing Impairment

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Disorder affecting a child's hearing.

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Gifted and Talented Children

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A group of children who are outstandingly intelligent (i.e. an IQ of 130 or greater) or are exceptionally skilled in a particular subject or area.

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Accelerated Programs

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Academic programs where students are taught basic information and then allowed to progress at their own pace. This type of program is used for gifted children.

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Enrichment Programs

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Academic programs where students are given a deeper education in their areas of interest.

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General Exploratory Activities

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by Renzulli 1994. Enables students to learn independently more about their areas of interest.

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Group Training Experiences

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by Renzulli 1994. Controlled learning experiences (such as games and stimulated activities) designed to stimulate students to learn new problem-solving skills.

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Individual and Small-Group Activities

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by Renzulli 1994. Focused on real-life problems and situations, such as developing professional skills or resisting negative peer pressure.

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Meaning Emphasis Strategy

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A strategy of teaching reading which stresses the overall meaning of a passage. Language Experience Strategy & Whole Language Approach are the most common ways of doing this.

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Language Experience Strategy

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A kind of meaning emphasis strategy which relies on the student's experiences and language ability. The student will dictate a story to an adult, who will write it down and then have the child read the dictated story.

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Whole Language Approach

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A kind of meaning emphasis strategy which integrates reading with other language skills such as speaking, writing, and listening.

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Code Emphasis Strategy

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An approach to teaching reading which emphasizes the ability to decode words, involving rules for learning phonemes.

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Phonics Approach

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An (code emphasis) approach to teaching reading which attempts to enhance children's phonemic awareness, or ability to discriminate between different phonemes. This method teaches students the relationships between written words and their different phonemes.

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Data-Driven Models

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Reading models which focus on analyzing words letter-by-letter.

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Concept-Driven Models

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Reading models which says that the student derives meaning of written words based on their experiences, knowledge, and expectations.

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Reciprocal Teaching

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An approach to teaching reading that encourages children to monitor their own reading comprehension. After reading, students will summarize in their own words what they just read, ask questions about the text to find the main points, clarify anything not understood, and guess at what will happen next in the passage.

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Public Law 94-142

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A law enacted in 1975 to ensure that every exceptional learner is given instruction appropriate for his or her needs. The child should be placed in the least restrictive environment possible (i.e. spending the most time with ordinary students).

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Inclusion

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Educating exceptional learners in a regular classroom while offering them any extra assistance they need.

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Individualized Education Program (IEP)

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A legal document describing a child's special needs and what programs and assistance he or she will receive.

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Performance-Based Test Strategies

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Testing strategies which have students create long-term projects to determine how much they have learned.

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Portfolios

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A kind of performance-based testing strategy that combines multiple projects of the student that were made at various stages in a project.

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Exhibitions

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A kind of performance-based testing strategy where students will work on a project over a long period of time to produce a finished product.

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Demonstrations

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A kind of performance-based testing strategy that allows students to apply knowledge learned in one situation to a different one.

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Formative Evaluation

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A kind of testing the teacher uses to determine what aspects of a subject to focus on, depending on how much the students know and comprehend.

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Summative Evaluation

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A kind of testing the teacher uses to measure the students' mastery of a particular subject. These tests are used in a student's final grade.

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letter grading approaches

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A = outstanding, B = above average, C = average aka competent but not exceptional, D = below average, F = failure to achieve minimum competency

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Absolute Grading Standards

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An approach to grading where the students are given a numerical score, using either a 10-point or a 7-point grading scale. These scores may be translated into a letter grade or compared to the average score on a test.

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Relative Grading Scales (Curving)

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An approach to grading where students' individual scores are compared to a predetermined average score (compared to others from that grade).

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Descriptive Grading Scales

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An approach to grading using descriptive terms such as "outstanding" or "unsatisfactory" to rate the student's performance.

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Performance Grading Scales

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An approach to grading which uses a portfolio of a student's work to measure that student's development over time and to compare it to that of others in the class.

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Mastery Grading Scales

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An approach to grading which establishes a standard students must reach to pass and allows them to continue studying until they reach it.

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Criterion-Referenced Testing

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A testing procedure that measures a student's mastery of a particular skill or understanding of a certain concept. The purpose of this kind of test is to measure whether a student has achieved a certain learning objective.

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Norm-Referenced Testing

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A testing procedure that measures an individual student's score relative to those of a representative group of students. These tests are used to rank students based on their skill levels compared to their peers.

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Achievement Test Battery

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A kind of achievement test which combines several different subject areas into the same test.

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Competency Tests

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Tests used to determine if students have achieved a minimum amount of learning needed to pass a class. (also called End-of-Grade Tests)

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Diagnostic Achievement Tests

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Tests used to determine a student's strengths and weaknesses, judging whether or not a student needs special education services.

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Derived Score

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A raw score converted into a form in which it can be compared to other scores from the same test.

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Norm Group

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A sample group who is to represent the population being tested.

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Normal Distribution

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A bell-shaped curve which can be easily and consistently used to interpret scores.

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descriptive statistics

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mean = all the scores added together then divided by the number of scores median = the numerically middle score of all of the scores (the middle of the two middle if there is an even amount of scores) mode = the most common score range = subtracting the lowest score from the highest score standard deviation = and index of how widely scattered scores tend to be around the mean

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Stanine

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A method of scaling scores using a nine-point scale with a mean of 5 and standard deviation of 2. This method is intended to minimize insignificant differences between scores. (STAndard NINE)

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Z-Scores

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A method of scaling scores using a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

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T-Scores

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A method of scaling scores using a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.

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Percentile Scores

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A method of scaling scores using a percentage of scores less than or equal to the student's score.

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Grade-Level Equivalent Scores

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A method of scaling scores which evaluates students in terms of the grade level at which they are functioning. (grade.month : 5.3)

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Content Validity

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The degree to which the content of a test represents the broader subject area the test is supposed to measure.

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Face Validity

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How relevant a test is at face value.

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Criterion-Related Validity

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The degree to which a test correlates with a direct measure of what the test is designed to measure, such as how well a reading test correlates with a student's actual reading level.

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Predictive Validity

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The degree to which a test accurately predicts a student's future behavior.

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Construct Validity

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The degree to which a test accurately measures the trait or skill it is designed to measure.

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Concurrent Validity

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The degree to which performance on one test correlates with performance on a second test.

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test-retest reliablility

answer

consistency of scores (does this person get about the same scores on this test every time they take it, including in different situations, etc?) Coefficients larger than about 0.80 are generally considered adequate

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Alternate (or Parallel) Forms Reliability

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A measure of how well scores from two different tests meant to evaluate the same thing correlate with each other.

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Split-Half (or Spearman-Brown) Reliability

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A measure of how well scores from one half of a test correlate with those from the other half (usually odd and even numbered test questions). Coefficients 0.90 and higher are considered adequate.

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Kuder-Richardson Reliability

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A measure of the internal consistency of a test.

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Test Bias

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A condition where a test consistently provides an inaccurate score due to some property of the test taker, such as gender, socioeconomic status, or race.

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Standard Error of Measurement & Estimate

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Reflects how imperfect the reliability & validity (respectively) of a test is and the range a student's scores could fall within if the test were repeatedly administered over consecutive days.

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Confidence Interval

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A possible range a student's scores may fall within if the student took the test multiple times.

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Pedagogy

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The science and practice of teaching. It encompasses different styles and methods of instructing.

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Expository Teaching

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A kind of teaching which stresses that students identify the underlying relationships between different concepts and ideas to enhance their understanding. (starts with an overview then goes into detail in order to give the students information to connect new information to later in the course)

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discovery learning

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Teaching methods that enable students to discover information by themselves or in groups. Students construct an understanding on their own. (includes developing hypotheses and researching/logically finding the answer) This is called guided discovery when the teacher helps some/gives feedback.

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Advance Organizer

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by Ausubel 1963. Information given in advance of a lesson to prepare the students by reminding them of important information learned before and focusing them on key information (relating new and old information).

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Comparative Advance Organizers

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Advance organizers which list previously learned information the students will need for the lesson.

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Expository Advance Organizers

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Advance organizers which list new, unlearned information the students will need for the lesson.

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Cooperative Learning

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A type of learning where a small group of students will work together on the same project, each making some contribution.

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Student Team Achievement Decisions

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A type of cooperative learning where the teacher will teach the students a skill, divide them into teams, and allow each team to practice the skill until all teams understand it perfectly.

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Jigsaw II

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A type of cooperative learning where students will be divided into teams and each student will be responsible for some aspect of a project and to teach the other students about the part they were in charge of.

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Clustering

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A learning strategy which involves grouping information into categories based on shared patterns, sequences, or characteristics (as well as using graphic aids).

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Questioning Techniques

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Asking students challenging questions to gauge their understanding and focus their attention.

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simulations & videodisks

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resources that computers make available to students for additional learning resources (online classroom teaching & step by step processes/demonstrations)

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Cultural Deficit Theories

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Theories which argue that the language, culture, and traditions of minority students negatively affects their academic ability.

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Cultural Differences Theories

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Theories which view the unique language, culture, and customs of minority children as an asset in their learning.

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Maintenance Bilingual Programs

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Bilingual education programs which teach students both in their native tongue and English, allowing them to maintain their bilingualism and traditions. (mainly in elementary grade levels)

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Transitional Bilingual Programs

answer

Bilingual education programs which instruct minority students in their native tongue until they become more competent in English.

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English as a Second Language (ESL) Programs

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Bilingual education programs which aim to have students learn English as soon as possible (typically about two years) so that they can be in normal English classes.

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the five SES levels

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upper class (3% of the population), upper-middle class (22% of the population), lower-middle class (34% of the population), upper working class (28% of the population), lower working class (13% of the population).

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

answer

A prediction which causes itself to become true. In educational psychology, the teacher's expectations about a student's success almost always come true, regardless of whether or not the expectations were backed by truth.

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authoritarian approach

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a classroom management method where the teacher makes rules and strictly adheres to them and expects them to be followed without any input from students

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permissive aproach

answer

a classroom management method where the teacher has very few set rules and students are allowed to make decisions regarding appropriate and inappropriate behavior (sometimes class/students even give punishments and rewards instead of the teacher)

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authoritative approach

answer

a classroom management method where the teacher makes rules and also discusses the reasons for the rules (the teacher gives rewards for appropriate compliance)

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Withitness

answer

Teachers with this quality are constantly aware of and in control of everything going on in a classroom.

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general routine areas

answer

by Weinstein (1996). teachers should develop specific procedures to maintain classroom structure in these areas. -administrative routines - such as taking attendance -student movement patterns - getting permission to go to the bathroom -housekeeping activities - keeping the classroom in order and clean -specific routines - accomplish lessons, collect assignments and return them to students -communicating with each other - during class time when students work on team assignments or give help to a classmate

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rules for secondary-level students

answer

by Emmer, Evertson, Clements, and Worsham (1997). -bring all needed materials to class -be in your seat and ready to work when the bell rings -respect others and be polite to everyone -respect other people's property -listen and stay seated when someone else is speaking, whether it is the teacher or another student -obey all school rules

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Group Consequences

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Punishing or rewarding the entire class based on its obedience to the rules.

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Assertive Discipline

answer

An approach to classroom management where the teacher will enforce clear rules for student conduct, quickly and impartially punishing (verbally often followed by behavioral consequences) any disobedience.

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common consequences for inappropriate behavior

answer

although these do not all work for every student as some students might see one method as a reward and another as a punishment while another student might see the same methods in the opposite way. -ignoring inappropriate behavior -praising positive behavior -using I-messages (where the teacher focuses on the impact of the behavior instead of the student's personal characteristics) -telling the student to stop the behavior (or there will be punishment) -rewarding other students for appropriate conduct so that they serve as models for the non-compliant student

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General Objectives

answer

Learning objectives relating to abstract concepts such as understanding or being able to apply knowledge to different situations. Gronlund (2000) proposed a instructional theory focusing on this kind of learning objective.

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Specific Learning Outcomes

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Learning outcomes defined by specific operational steps and skills a student must master. Gronlund (2000) believed that general objectives should be clarified by these kinds of outcomes.

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Task Analyze

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Breaking apart an objective into specific, concrete steps or subskills a student must achieve to master the task.

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validity & reliability

answer

the degree of accuracy with which the findings correspond with reality (and whether or not the test/experiment measures what it is trying to measure) & the consistency of the results across multiple administrations of the same test/experiment

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null hypotheses

answer

is when it is presumed that no relationships exist among the variables being studied

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case studies

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in-depth analysis of only one person (Freud used these a lot).

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naturalistic observation

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studying behavior as it occurs in real life settings must be unobtrusive, and have inter-judge/inter-rater/inter-observer reliability (the confirmation of what is happening). also called a field study.

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survey studies

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participants fill out questionaries that ask about variables, then researchers determine patterns (researchers have no way of figuring out how each of the participants interpreted the question or why they answered in the ways that they did)

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experiments

answer

controlled cause and effect relationships

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independent variables

answer

The "cause" & always involves treating subjects in at least two different ways (one way it is applied the other way it is not)

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dependent variable

answer

the "effects" of the cause

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sample & population

answer

a representative subset of a population (in other words, less than all of the people from the population) & all of the people who fit under a particular category (such as all Americans, all high-school students with an eating disorder, etc.)

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experimental group & control group

answer

exposed to the cause & not exposed to the cuase

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random sampling & stratified random sampling

answer

provides a representative sample (which is a valid and reliable description of the population's characteristics) & similar but with each distinct sub-populations getting the same amount of representatives in the sample

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convenience sampling

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using a certain group of participants in a study because they are readily available and easy to evaluate (like using your psychology class as your sample because it is easier then getting people together who you might not normally see)

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clustered sampling

answer

collecting data in a specific geographic area (this can help save money)

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biased sampling

answer

when the researcher systematically and intentionally only uses participants who meet specific predetermined characteristics

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inferential statistics

answer

Determine whether results from a sample hold for a population. To evaluate the strength of relationships between variables. (examples: the t-test: analysis of variance and multivariate analysis of variance [ANOVA AND MANOVA]) The most commonly accepted levels of significance are p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 These indicate that the findings being a result of chance (and not a relationship) is less then 5 out of 100 and less then 1 out of 100, respectively.

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nonparametric statistics

answer

Sometimes the sample does not have the necessary characteristics for inferential statistics, namely a normally distributed sample, so they use this instead. (examples: Kruskal-Wallace test and chi-square)

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cross-sectional design/study

answer

Comparing people who are at different ages from each other at a single point in time. The biggest problem with this is when someone's age and cohort (a group of people born during the same period of time) are confused/"confounded" with each other. Cohorts make it hard to tell whether it is a factor of age or a factor of differences in the periods of time in which the subjects grew up.

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longitudinal design/study

answer

Tracking the behavior of a single cohort orperson over a long period of time The biggest problem is that age is confounded with the time of testing (the changing times could effect the subjects instead of their age).

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attrition

answer

The loss of subjects in a research study over time due to participant drop-out.

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deception

answer

withholding information about the purpose of a study (in order to not influence results). this is only acceptable when its benefits clearly and oviously outweigh its liabilities and if it does not violate other ethical standards

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Internal Review Board (IRB)

answer

they ensure that the methods used in a study are reasonable and appropriate and will not cause any kind of psychological or physical distress to participants.

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informed consent

answer

An agreement by an individual to participate in research after receiving information about the purpose of the study and the nature of the treatment (the participant may withdraw from the study at any time without any penalties).

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debriefed

answer

After the experiment, the results and any deceptions performed during the experiment are revealed to the participants and their questions are answered. (responses are confidential and the references to the participants' identities are destroyed)

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correlational design

answer

used to identify a relationship between two preexisting events or traits (excluding cause and effect relationships). This can be done in natural or laboratory settings.

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quasi-experimental design

answer

the researcher cannot control some of the variables of interest in the study and (unlike in the experimental design) cannot randomly assign participants to treatment conditions. This is done in natural settings.

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experimental design

answer

it can suggest cause and effect relationships among variables, and the researcher can control the variables. This is done in a laboratory/controlled environment.

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