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chemistry

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The study of matter, its properties, and the changes it undergoes.

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matter

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Anything that has mass and takes up space.

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weight

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measure of mass + the force of gravity on an object

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density

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amount of mass per unit volume(g/cm³) (mass/volume)

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independent variable

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variable you plan to change

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dependent variable

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variable that changes in response to independent variable

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quantitative data

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numerical observation: how much, how little, how fast

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qualitative data

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physical characteristics that are relative to 5 senses

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control

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standard for comparison in the experiment

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scientific method

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A systematic method of finding the answer to a question or problem. The scientific method allows for discoveries to be made and added to the known knowledge. 1. question/problem 2. research 3. hypothesis 4. explanation 5. analyze results 6. conclusion

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kelvin

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SI unit for temperature

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conclusion

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judgement based on the information obtained from experiment

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scientific notation

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used to express any number as a number between 1 and 10 raised to a power

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accuracy

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how close your value is to the accepted value

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precision

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how close a series of measurements are to one another

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significant figures rules

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RULE 1: nonzero numbers are always significant RULE 2: zeros between nonzero numbers are always significant RULE 3: all final zeros to the right of decimal are always significant RULE 4: place holder zeros are not significant(put in scientific notation to get rid of placeholders) RULE 5: all zeros to the left of the decimal are significant RULE 6: counting numbers and defined constants have an infinitive number of significant figures

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mass

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how much matter is in an object

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states of matter

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solid, liquids, gasses, vapor

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solid

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State of matter that has definite shape and volume. Its molecules are constantly vibrating but they cannot switch places with other molecules. Not easily compressed.

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liquid

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State of matter that has indefinite shape and definite volume and size. Takes the shape of its container. Molecules move faster and slip out of position. Not easily compressed. Particles are in constant contact as they flow past each other.

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gas

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State of matter that has indefinite shape, size, and volume. Molecules move so fast that they bounce out of the liquid state and become this. Molecules will spread evenly throughout container. Easily compressed.

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vapor

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gaseous state of substance that was once solid or liquid

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physical property

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characteristic that can be observed or measured without changing a sample's composition. ex. color, melting point, boiling point, density, shape, size, texture

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extensive properties

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dependent on how much of the substance is there. ex. mass, length, volume

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intensive properties

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dependent on what the substance is not how much. ex. density

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chemical property

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ability of a substance to combine with or change into one or more other substances. ex. reactivity, combustibility, flammability

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physical changes

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change that alters a substance without changing its composition

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chemical changes

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one or more substances turning into new substances. ex. decomposing, rusting, exploding, burning, oxidizing

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law of conservation of mass

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states that mass is neither created or destroyed in a chemical reaction, its conserved. mass of two reactants equals the mass of the products

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element

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pure substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by physical or chemical means

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compounds

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made up of two or more elements combined chemically

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mixture

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combination of two or more pure substances that combine physically

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homogeneous mixture

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solution - look same throughout

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heterogeneous mixture

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mixture where the individual substances remain distinct

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law of definite proportions

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a compound is always composed of the same elements in the same proportion by mass no matter how large or small the sample

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percent by mass

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the ratio of the mass of each element to the total mass of the compound expressed as a percentage %mass = mass of element / mass of compound) x 100

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law of multiple proportions

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when different compounds are formed by a combination of the same elements, different masses of one element combine with the same relative mass of the other element in whole number ratios

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atom

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smallest particle of an element

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electron

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a negatively charged particle with extremely small mass

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nucleus

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the region in the center of an atom

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proton

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a positively charged particle that is much heavier than an electron

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neutron

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a neutral particle in the nucleus that has about the same mass as a proton

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atomic mass

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the weighted average of the masses of all the naturally occurring isotopes of that element

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atomic number

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equal to the number of protons in an element

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isotopes

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when 2 atoms of an element have the same protons and electrons but different number of neutrons and different mass

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alpha decay

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α-decay, is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle and thereby transforms (or 'decays') into an atom with a mass number 4 less and atomic number 2 less.

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beta decay

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(β decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which a proton is transformed into a neutron, or vice versa, inside an atomic nucleus. This process allows the atom to move closer to the optimal ratio of protons and neutrons.

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gamma decay

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A radioactive process in which an atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting a gamma ray (a stream of high-energy photons). When an element undergoes gamma decay its atomic number and mass number do not change.

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atomic symbol

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(for a particular isotope) has the mass number, the atomic number, and the symbol of the element - example: ²⁴₁₂Mg (this is the isotope Mg-24)

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wavelength

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the distance between two crests (or troughs) of a wave (λ)

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frequency

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the number of times the crests of a wave pass a point in 1 second (v)

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amplitude

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the waves height from origin to crest

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electromagnetic spectrum

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an arrangement of different types of electromagnetic radiation from the longest wavelength to the shortest wavelength (radio waves, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, gamma rays)

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speed of light

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wavelength x frequency

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quantum of light

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3.00 x 10⁸ m/s = λ x v

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e=hv

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energy of a photon or energy of a quantum. h is planks constant- 6.626x10⁻³⁴. measured in joules

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ground state vs. excited state

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When all electrons in an atom occupy the lowest available orbitals, it is said to be in the ground state. When electrons absorb energy they have the ability to jump to higher energy levels and they become excited.

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quantum numbers

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A number used when describing the energy levels available to atoms and molecules . An electron in an atom or ion has four quantum numbers to describe its state. n - describes the energy level ℓ - describes the subshell m ℓ - describes the orbital of the subshell m s - describes the spin

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electron configurations

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indicates the placement of the electrons of an atom in order of increasing energy (e.g. 1s²2s²2p²)

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Aufbau principle

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electrons are added to orbitals as protons are added to an atom.

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hund's rule

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every orbital in a subshell is singly occupied with one electron before any one orbital is doubly occupied, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same spin

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pauli exclusion principle

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each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons (remember: single-stuff before double-stuff)

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orbital diagrams

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shows the placement of electrons in the orbitals in order of increasing energy (e.g. 1s↑↓ | 2s↑↓ | 2p↑ ↑)

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valence electrons

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electrons in the outermost energy level

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octet rule

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elements gain or lose electrons to attain an electron configuration of the nearest noble gas.

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chemical bonds

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attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical substances that contain two or more atoms

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cations

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positively charged ion

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anions

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negatively charged ion

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ionic bonds

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bonds that hold together ionic compounds (transferring electrons)

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ionic compounds

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consist of a metal and a nonmetal

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naming ionic compounds

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end in -ide, use Roman numerals (if in d block)

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metallic bonds

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electrostatic attraction between the positively charged atomic nuclei of metal atoms and the delocalised electrons in the metal.

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covalent bond formation

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bond that holds together molecular compounds (sharing electrons)

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sigma bonds

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single covalent bond

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pi bond

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double covalent bond

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strength of covalent bonds

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strongest chemical bonds

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naming covalent bonds

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end with -ide, use prefixes (mono, di, tri, tetrea, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca)

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lewis structures

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Step 1: Determine the total number of valence electrons. Step 2: Write the skeleton structure of the molecule. Step 3: Use two valence electrons to form each bond in the skeleton structure. Step 4: Try to satisfy the octets of the atoms by distributing the remaining valence electrons as nonbonding electrons.

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resonance

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The concept in which two or more equivalent dot formulas for the same arrangement of atoms (resonance structures) are necessary to describe the bonding in a molecule or ion.

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VESPR model

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Concept that electrostatic repulsion between electron pairs surrounding an atom causes these pairs to be separated as far as possible. Theory used to predict the shape of molecules.

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polarity

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separation of electric charge leading to a molecule or its chemical groups having an electric dipole or multipole moment. Polar molecules interact through dipole-dipole inter-molecular forces and hydrogen bonds.

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aqueous solution

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contains one or more dissolved substances in water

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complete ionic

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show all particles in a solution as they actually exist

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spectator ions

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ions that do not participate in the reaction

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net ionic equation

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only include the particles that participate in the reaction

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synthesis

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2+ elements or compounds bond to form one product

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combustion

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a carbon-containing compound burns in O₂ to produce CO₂, H₂O, and energy

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single replacement

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an uncombined element takes the place of an element in a compound

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double replacement

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the positive ions in the reacting compounds switch places

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decomposition

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a single reactant splits into 2+ products

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