HD Prelim 3 – Flashcards
Unlock all answers in this set
Unlock answersquestion
Describe the stage of initiative versus guilt, the psychological conflict in early childhood according to Erikson's theory.
answer
The psychological conflict of early childhood, which is resolved positively through play experiences that foster a healthy sense of initiative and through development of a superego, or conscience, that is not overly strict and guilt-ridden. Negative outcome causes overly strict supergo.
question
Describe some characteristics of preschoolers' self-concepts.
answer
The set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is. The mental representations of the self has profound implications for children's emotional and social lives influencing their preferences for activities and social partners and their vulnerability to stress (name physical appearance possessions) By age 3.5 includes typical emotions and attitudes
question
Explain how cultural variations in personal storytelling with parents may be related to differences in self-concept in early childhood.
answer
Chinese parents told more long stories about misdeeds using impolite language writing on walls or playing in an overly rowdy way. These narratives were conveys with warmth and caring stressed the impact of misbehavior. Chinese value discipline and social obligations. Irish American stories referred to transgressions parents downplays their seriousness attributing them to the child's spunk and assertiveness. American Irish focus more on self esteem.
question
How is high self-esteem related to initiative in early childhood?
answer
High self esteem contributes greatly to preschooler's initiative during a period in which they must master new skills. By age 3 children whose parents patiently encourage while offering information about how to succeed are enthusiastic and highly motivated.
question
How is empathy different from sympathy?
answer
Sympathy is feelings of concern or sorrow for another's plight (more prosocial). Empathy is the capacity to recognize and, to some extent, share feelings (such as sadness or happiness) that are being experienced by another. not related to prosocial behavior
question
Describe the kinds of play related to social development typically seen in early childhood.
answer
Parallel Play - Children between the age of 1 ½ and 2 play side by side, doing the same or similar things, but not interacting with each other Associative Play - Children engage in separate activities but exchange toys and comment on one another's behavior Cooperative Play - a more advanced type of interaction, children orient toward a common goal, such as acting out a make-believe theme
question
How do preschoolers regard friendship?
answer
They say that a friend is someone "who like you" and with whom you spend a lot of time. 4 - 7 year olds regard friendship as pleasure based and share toys. But friendship does not yet have a long term enduring quality based on mutual trust.
question
How is social problem solving related to peer relations in early childhood?
answer
Social Problem Solving is generating and applying strategies that prevent or resolve disagreements, resulting in outcomes that are both acceptable to others and beneficial to the self. Children learn to not grab, hit or insist but instead compromise and use friendly persuasion. They think of alternate strategies when there are disagreements. They try to have mutual goals. (Formulate goals that enhance relationship and have repertoire of problem solving strategies)
question
Compare and contrast the main aspects of three theories on moral development in early childhood: the psychoanalytic perspective, behaviorism and social learning theory, and the cognitive developmental perspective.
answer
psychoanlyantc - moral development complete by 5 to 6 fear of punishment and loss of parental love motivate behavior and conscious formation guilt is an important motivator for from superego behaviorism/social learning - morality does not have a unique course of development through reinforcement and operand conditions not enough act must first occur spontaneously modeling cognitive dev - regard children as active thinkers of social worlds have own morality already and decide what is wrong and construct ideas page 378 GO OVER
question
Describe ethnic differences in the consequences of physical punishment and what parental behavior seems to be the key variable in these differences.
answer
Use of physical punishment is highest among low SES ethnic minority parents who are more likely than middle SES with parents to advocate slaps and spankings. In Caucasion-american family physical punishment was positively associated with adolescent aggression and antisocial behavior. In African American families the more mothers had discipline physical in childhood the less the teenagers display angry acting out behavior. The key difference is parental warms as opposed to rejecting the child.
question
Describe the differences between instrumental (proactive) and hostile (reactive) aggression. Also, describe how physical, verbal, and relational aggression are different.
answer
Proactive Aggression - deliberate agression against another as means of obtaining a desired goal Reactive Aggression - hostile, is an angry defensive response to provocation or a blocked goal and is meant to hurt another person Physical Aggression - A form of aggression that harms others through physical injury to themselves or their property. Verbal Aggression - A type of hostile aggression that harms others through threats of physical aggression, name-calling, or hostile teasing. Relational Aggression - damages another's peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation
question
How is boys' and girls' aggression different in early childhood?
answer
Girls - inflicting indirect relational aggression Boy - physical aggression but all types
question
How have social learning and cognitive-developmental theories explained gender typing?
answer
The same theories that provide accounts of morality have been used to explain children's gender typing: social learning theory with its emphasis on modeling and reinforcement and cognitive development theory a third perspective that combine elements of both has gained flavor. ----- behavior comes before self perceptions, so gender typing and fulfillment of gender roles comes before gender identity, but for cognitive developmental, gender identity comes before and dictates behavior.
question
What influences on gender-typing appear to be biological?
answer
Girls exposed prenatally to high levels of androgens due either to normal variation in hormone level or to a genetic defect showed more masculine behaviors. MERG
question
How do parents, teachers, peers and television contribute to gender typing?
answer
Parents have expectations. Fathers teach boys to play catch and girls play with dolls. Parents do this indirectly. Teachers say things like boys quiet down like the girls. Treat different gender differently when misbehave. Peer: same sex associations and so play with same toys other girls or boys do. Television show girls acting a certain way and boys acting a certain way.
question
Define gender identity (use the definition from lecture), androgyny, and gender constancy.
answer
Gender identity - Sense of self as a man or woman or some combination (differ def than text which defines as image of oneself as masculine or feminine). Androgyny is scoring high on both masculine and feminine personality characteristics. Gender Constancy is the understanding that sex is biolically based and remains the same, even if clothing, hairstyle, and play activities change.
question
Describe gender schema theory.
answer
Information-processing approach to gender typing that combines social learning and cognitive-developmental features. It explains how environmental pressures and children's cognitions work together to shape gender-role development.
question
Know Baumrind's model of parenting styles, including the two major dimensions on which child rearing varies and the four parenting styles that result (know my chart from lecture with two dimensions rather than the Berk text chart with three dimensions).
answer
NOTES
question
What are the three dimensions the text uses to describe parenting styles? (table, p. 399)
answer
Authoritative Child-Rearing Style - the most successful approach-involves high acceptance and involvement, adaptive control techniques, and appropriate autonomy granting Permissive Child-Rearing Style - warm and accepting but uninvolved. either overindulging or inattentive and thus, engage in little control. they allow children to make many of their own decisions at an age when they are not yet capable of doing so. Authoritarian Child-Rearing Style - low in acceptance and involvement, high in coercive control, and low in autonomy granting Uninvolved Child-Rearing Style -combines low acceptance and involvement with little control and general indifference to issues of autonomy ACCEPTANCE INVOLVEMENT CONTROL AND AUTONOMY GRANTING
question
What characteristics in preschoolers are associated with the four different parenting styles?
answer
Confidence, self control resilience and self esteem
question
Describe some cultural variations in parenting styles.
answer
Chinese parents describe their parent as more controlling. They are more directive in teaching and schooling. They may appear less warm than Western parent because they withhold praise withy they believe result in self satisfies poorly motivated children. Hispanic family and Caribbean families firm instance on respect for parental authority is paired with high parental warmth. They spend a lot of time with their children and are warm and sensitive. Low SES african american parent tend to expect immediate obedience . They have more controlling strategies.
question
What family, community, and cultural variables are associated with child maltreatment?
answer
Neglect accounts for 60%. Physical abuse 20% and emotional abuse for 10% Family - Maltreating parents do not know how to handle children do not know how get them to do what told community - abusive neglective isolated from support
question
How does the rate of physical growth in middle childhood (ages 6 to 11) compare to the rate of growth in infancy and toddlerhood and in early childhood?
answer
It begins slow down and grow at regular pace. Will add 2 - 3 inches and 5 pounds a year.
question
What part of the body is growing fastest during middle childhood?
answer
Lower body like legs and feet.
question
Why do growth norms based on Caucasian children have to be applied cautiously to other populations?
answer
Other cultures are known to be short or tall (also weight). This is due to climate and evolutionary adaptation in different places. Living conditions.
question
Why are children in industrialized countries growing faster and larger than their ancestors?
answer
In industrialized are taller and heavier than their parents because better grains and foods. In low income countries more like to have illness that stunt growth.
question
Why do children in middle childhood have a great deal of flexibility in movement?
answer
Ligaments are not firmly attached to bone. This combine with increase muscle strength give children flexibility of movement.
question
What are some of the effects of serious, prolonged malnutrition in middle childhood?
answer
retarded physical growth, low IQ, poor motor coordination, and inattention also permanent physical and mental damage
question
What percentage of American children suffer from obesity?
answer
32% if US children and adolescence are over weight more than extremely so 17 percent are obese.
question
How is growth stunting due to early malnutrition related to childhood obesity?
answer
Children who are undernourished risk excessive weight gain. Studies in many poverty stricken regions of the world reveal that growth stunted children are more likely to be overweight than their nonstunted age mates.
question
What factors are associated with childhood obesity?
answer
Less physically active, not usually as physically attractive, low self esteem, and depression heredity , SES, burly growth pattern, family eating habits, responsiveness to food cues, physical activity, television views and early malnutrition
question
What is one of the few health problems in middle childhood which increases with family income and education?
answer
Myopia or nearsightedness
question
Know that bedwetting in school-age children usually has biological roots.
answer
Heredity is major contributing factor. Parents with a history of bedwetting are far more like to have a child with the problem. or Hormonal imbalance or failure of muscular responses
question
What is the most common chronic illness in middle childhood?
answer
Asthma about 15 - 20%
question
What are the two major causes of injury during the school years?
answer
Motor vehicle accidents, bicycling accidents
question
Improvements in gross motor skills in middle childhood are related to gains in which four motor capacities?
answer
Flexibility - Compared with preschooler school age children age physically more pliable and elastic Balance - Improved balance supports many athletic skills Agility - Quicker and more accurate movements are evident in the fancy footwork of dance and cheerleading Force - Older children an throw and kick a ball harder
question
Know that in addition to improved motor capacities, improvements in information processing and reaction time are related to improved motor performance in middle childhood.
answer
:)
question
Improved fine motor development can be seen in what skills in middle childhood?
answer
By age 6 most children can print the alphabet their first and last names and numbers from 1 to 10 with reasonable clarity. They have also master uppercase and maybe some lowercase. Children drawings show dramatic gains in organization detail and representation of depth during middle childhood.
question
How are biology and environment related to gender differences in motor skills?
answer
Sex differences in motor skills that appeared during the preschool years extend into middle childhood and in some instances become more pronounced. Girls have the edge in fine motor skills of handwriting and drawing and in gross motor capacities that depend on balance and agility. But boys out perform girls on all other like running vertical jump kicking and catching. (strength)
question
What skills do school-age children learn in child-organized games with rules?
answer
School-age - gained in perspective taking learn to cooperating, competing, winning, and losing with little risk. Adult - ensure safety, learn rule, participation and team work
question
What are some possible roles served by rough and tumble play?
answer
The friendly chasing and play-fighting where children learn to engage with peers. Dominance Heirachy - stable ordering of group member who will win when conflict arises
question
Describe Piaget's concrete operational stage and how children handle the following tasks: conservation, decentration, reversibility, classification, and seriation and spatial reasoning.
answer
Concrete Operational Stage - Piaget's third stage of cognitive development; 7-11 yrs; replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations; can see things in another perspective; develop ability to empathize; principle of conservation seen. Pass conservation task Reversibility - the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point Inclusion problem - more aware of classification hierarchies and can focus on relations between a general category and two specific categories at the same time. Seriation-the ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight Piaget found that school age childrens' understandings of space is more accurate than preschoolers. Decrentation - ability to focus on several aspect of a problem and relate them
question
What are some limitations of concrete operational thought?
answer
Children think in an organized logical fashion only when dealing with concrete information they can perceive directly and not abstract idea. Their mental operations work poorly with abstract ideas ones not apparent in the real world. Children master concrete operational tasks step by step not all at once.
question
How are culture and education related to the development of concrete operational thought?
answer
In tribal and villages concrete operation often delayed. They are not understood till age 11 or later. The experience of going to school seems to promote master of Piagetian tasks. Forms of logic do not emerge spontaneous but by training.
question
Describe the improvements in information processing speed and capacity and inhibition that occur in middle childhood.
answer
It increases. The times needed to process information on a wide variety of cognitive tasks declines rapidly between 6 and 12. Cognitive schemes demand less attention. So space is freed in working memory. Gains in inhibition can keep minds from straying. Understands appear in specific situations. Think more strategically.
question
Give examples of how attention becomes more selective, adaptable and planful in middle childhood.
answer
Selective attention improves sharply between 6 and 10. Children also flexibly adapt their attention to situation requirements. School age children's attentional strategies also become increasingly planful.
question
Describe the memory strategies of rehearsal, organization, and elaboration.
answer
Rehearsal - repeating information to oneself Organization - grouping related items together Elaboration - creating a relationship, or shared meaning, between two or more pieces of information that do not belong to the same category
question
What has research found regarding two approaches to teaching reading: a whole language approach and a phonics approach?
answer
Whole-language approach - argues that reading should be taught in a way that parallels natural language learning. from the beginning children should be exposed to text in its complete form stories, poems, letters, posters, and lists so that they can appreciate the communicative function of the written language. Phonics Approach - believing that children should first be coached on phonics - the basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds. Only after mastering these skills should they get complex reading material Many learn best from a mixture of both.
question
What has research found about two approaches to teaching math: a drill and repetition approach and an approach exploring underlying math concepts.
answer
A drill and repetition approach - computing versus understanding children are trying to retrieve answers from memory Explore underlying math concepts - children given the chance to explore understand why Learn best from both
question
At what age does IQ become more stable and predictive of school performance?
answer
6
question
What are two intelligence tests which are commonly used in middle childhood?
answer
Standford Binet Intelligence Scale - general intelligence five factors Wechsler Intelligence scale fro Children IV - offers both general intelligence and variety of scores - tries to eliminate cultural bias
question
Describe the three components of Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence.
answer
Sternberg's theory, which states that intelligent behavior involves balancing analytical intelligence (school), creative intelligence( novel solutions), and practical intelligence (everyday world) to achieve success in life, according to one's personal goals and the requirements of one's cultural community.
question
Describe the multiple intelligences proposed by Gardner.
answer
Gardner's theory that we have multiple intelligences, each independent of the others; word smarts (linguistic), number smarts (loicomathicao), music, space, body )bodily kinestic) , self (intrarpersonal), people(interperson), and nature smarts (naturalist)
question
What is emotional intelligence and how can it be evaluated?
answer
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions. to measure it researchers have devised items taping into emotional skills that enable people to mange their own emotions and interact competently with others (intrapersonal or interpersonal)
question
Give an example of research evidence that supports that heredity contributes to IQ and another example that confirms that environment contributes to IQ.
answer
The IQ score of identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins. IQ score higher of adopted than no adopted children.IQ scores have increased over time.
question
What are some cultural influences on IQ?
answer
Communication style (use different words) , knowledge (different reasoning), and stereotype threat (fear of doing badly and being stereotyped)
question
What is stereotype threat and how is it related to performance?
answer
An evoked fear of being judged in accordance with a negative stereotype about a group to which you belong. This undermines test taking.
question
What does an interest in riddles and puns tell us about language development in middle childhood?
answer
Children can appreciate the multiple means of words as result of more reflective and analyiscal approach to language.
question
What does research indicate is an effective method for teaching American ethnic minority children with limited English proficiency: English only or bilingual education?
answer
Some believe that time spent communicating in the child's native tongue detracts from English language achievement which is crucial for success in the worlds of school and work. Other educators commit to developing minority children's native language while fostering mastery of english. Success Canadian language immersion programs. When teachers speak in a language that only people understand children display frustration and boredom.
question
How is class size related to academic achievement in elementary school?
answer
Smaller classes are better because more attention concentration participation and favorable attitudes. Score higher in reading and math.
question
What are some reasons that students in Finland and in several Asian countries perform better academically than American students?
answer
They underscore the need for American families schools and the larger society to work together to upgrade education. Teachers better trained more gov involvement.
question
What did Erikson believe was the psychological conflict of middle childhood?
answer
Industry versus inferiority - the psychological conflict of middle childhood which is resolved positively when children develop a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks Industry provide positive self concept and inferiority create pessisive (6 - 11)
question
What are some changes in self-concept that develop in middle childhood?
answer
They organize their behaviors and internal states into general dispositions. A major change takes place between ages 8 and 11. These evaluative self-descriptions results from school age children's frequent social comparisons - judgments of one's own appearance, abilities, and behavior in relation to those of others.
question
What four aspects of self-esteem develop in middle childhood and which one is most closely related to overall self-esteem?
answer
Academic Competence Social Competence Physical/athletic Competence Physical Competence - correlates most with self esteem
question
How does the level of children's self-esteem change in middle childhood?
answer
Self esteem declines during the first few years of elementary school as children evaluate themselves in various areas. The decline isn't harmful. This occurs as children get more competence feedback.
question
Which child-rearing style is related to high self-esteem in children?
answer
Authoritative The children feel especially good about themselves.
question
What are attributions and how are they related to achievement motivation?
answer
Attributions are our common everyday explanations for the causes of behavior our answers to the questions. Mastery-Oriented Attribution - success is attributed to ability and failure is a factor that can be controlled and taken responsibility for (learning goals) Learned Helplessness - attributes failures attributing failure to ability and can't do anything (performance goals)
question
Know the information presented in lecture on Dweck's motivational process model rather than the description in the Berk text.
answer
NOTES
question
What is attribution retraining?
answer
It encourages learned-helpless children to believe that they can overcome failure by exerting more effort. Children are given tasks difficult enough so they receive some failure and get feed back then given task they can do so attribute both to working hard
question
What is perspective taking and what is the sequence of changes in perspective taking according to Selman's theory? (You don't need to know Selman's stages, but you should know the sequence of changes he proposes.)
answer
Perspective Taking is the capacity to imagine what other people may be thinking and feeling. Begin with limited ideas of others thoughts and feeling and over time become aware people interpret same event different and older child can evaluate 2 peoples perspective
question
How do researchers assess peer acceptance and what four general categories of children have they found?
answer
Peer Acceptance is likability, or the extent to which a child is viewed by a group of agemates, such as classmates, as a worthy social partner. (use self reports and social prominence) Popular Children - Who get many positive vote Rejected Children - Who get many negative vote Controversial Children - Who receive many votes both positive and negative Neglected children - Who are seldom mentioned either positively or negatively
question
What do we know from research about the characteristics of only children?
answer
SIblings are not essential. Contrary to popular belief only children are not spoiled. They are advantaged. They are higher in self esteem and achievement motivation. But tend to be less accepted in peer group possible because they have not had opportunities to learn affective conflict resolution through sibling
question
What do we know from research about children from gay and lesbian families?
answer
Parents are committed and effective. Children develop just as well. Children don't differ in mental health gender identify or sexual orientation
question
What are some risks for children in never-married single-parent families?
answer
Children in these homes display adjustment problems associated with economic hardship and living in run down neighborhoods. Those who lack father's warmth and involvement engage in more anti social behavior.
question
How are a child's age, temperament and sex related to the immediate consequences of divorce?
answer
Many school age and adolescent youngsters react strongly experiencing depressed mood declining school performance becoming unruly and escaping into undesirable peer activities such as running away truancy and early sexual activity. Girl internalize. Both sexes show demanding attention getting behavior. BOy are at slightly high rick for serious adjustment problem if placed with mother. Boys more unruly. Preschool and young blame selves and show fear and anxiety that parents may abandon them. Older take on more responsibilities.
question
Generally how have children adjusted two years after a divorce?
answer
They show improvement after 2 years. But score slightly lower than continuously married parents. (academic achievement social competence)
question
What is the most important factor in a child's positive adjustment following divorce?
answer
Parents who set aside their disagreement adn engage in coparented support each other in their child-rearing roles grealty improve their children's chances of growing up competent stable and happy.
question
Which is worse for children: remaining in a high-conflict intact family or making the transition to a low-conflict single-parent household?
answer
Remaining in high-conflict intact family
question
What variables are related to children's adjustment in blended families?
answer
Effective approached encourage stepparents to ove into their new role gradually by first building a warm relationship. Parenting education and couple concealing and quality of family functioning. (age sex which parent forms the relationship)
question
What variables are related to how maternal employment affects children's development?
answer
When mothers enjoy their work and remain committed to parenting children show favorable adjustment higher self esteem more positive family and peer relations less gender stereotyped beliefs and better grades. Girls especially profit from the image of female competence. (working hours and negative work atmosphere affect badly)
question
Give examples of factors which foster resiliency in middle childhood?
answer
Personal Family Schol Community
question
How does the suggestibility of preschool children compare to the suggestibility of school-age children?
answer
School age children are better at giving accurate detailed narrative accounts of the past and correctly interpreting others' motives and intentions.
