Genetics – 3181 words – College Essay Example
Genetics – 3181 words – College Essay Example

Genetics – 3181 words – College Essay Example

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  • Pages: 11 (2975 words)
  • Published: October 19, 2018
  • Type: Article
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Science is a creature that continues to evolve at a much higher rate than the beings that gave it birth. The transformation time from tree-shrew, to ape, to human far exceeds the time from an analytical engine, to a calculator, to a computer. However, science, in the past, has always remained distant. It has allowed for advances in production, transportation, and even entertainment, but never in history has science been able to deeply affect our lives as genetic engineering will undoubtedly do. By understanding genetic engineering and its history, discovering its possibilities, and answering the moral and safety questions it brings forth, the blanket of fear covering this remarkable technical miracle can be lifted.

The initial step in comprehending genetic engineering and embracing its potential in society is to acquire a basic understanding of its history and methodology

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. The foundation for manipulating the process of evolution relies on comprehending how traits are passed down from parents to their offspring. Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, made significant progress in unraveling nature's evolutionary secrets by establishing the first "laws of heredity." Scientists then utilized these laws to study organism characteristics for approximately a century subsequent to Mendel's breakthrough. This early research deduced that each organism possesses two sets of genes, known as character determinants (Stableford 16). For example, concerning eye color, a child may inherit one set of genes from the father encoded as blue and brown, while simultaneously inheriting two brown genes from the mother. As a result, the likelihood of the child having brown eyes is three out of four, and the chance of having blue eyes is one out of three (Stableford 16).

Gene

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are passed on through chromosomes, which can be found in the nucleus of all living organisms' cells. Each chromosome is composed of strands of deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA). The information contained within the DNA determines the function of the cells in the organism. The discovery of DNA is attributed to Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and James Dewey Watson, who conducted research in 1951. These scientists were later awarded the Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine in 1962 (Lewin 1). According to Stableford (25), the field of genetic engineering aims to expedite the process of evolution by removing a gene from one organism's DNA and inserting it into another organism's DNA. This would result in a new DNA strand with newly encoded instructions, something that would have taken Mother Nature millions of years to accomplish through natural selection. Various tools are utilized to isolate and remove a desired gene from a DNA strand. While exposing DNA to ultra-high frequency sound waves can break it up, this method is highly inaccurate for isolating a specific DNA section (Stableford 26). A more precise technique for DNA splicing involves the use of "restriction enzymes, which are produced by various bacteria species" (Clarke 1). These enzymes cut the DNA strand at nucleotide bases both upstream and downstream from the gene that will be transferred.Once the desired portion of the DNA is excised, it can be fused to another DNA strand using ligase enzymes. To enable self-replication of the new DNA strand, special DNA fragments known as vectors are employed. Vectors facilitate the generation of multiple copies of the complete DNA strand by merging it with the recently formed DNA structure. Alternatively,

a recently developed technique called polymerase chain reaction (PCR) allows for rapid replication of DNA strands without the need for vectors (Clarke 1). PCR imitates the natural replication process employed by most organisms, albeit performed in a test tube. During cell division, polymerase enzymes replicate all the DNA present in each chromosome. The initial step involves unwinding the two chains of the double helix. As the strands separate, DNA polymerase creates a replica utilizing each strand as a template (Clarke 1). To execute DNA replication, polymerase necessitates two additional components: a supply of the four nucleotide bases and a primer. Polymerases from various sources, including humans, bacteria, and viruses, cannot initiate DNA replication without a small sequence of nucleotides known as a primer. Consequently, cells possess another enzyme called primase that synthesizes the first few nucleotides of the copy. This segment of DNA is referred to as a primer.The primer is utilized by the polymerase to synthesize the remainder of the new DNA chain. A PCR vial holds all the necessary components for duplicating DNA, including a DNA fragment, abundant quantities of the four nucleotides, ample amounts of the primer sequence, and the Taq polymerase - named after the source from which it was derived: Thermus aquaticus (Clarke 1). The three phases of the polymerase chain reaction occur within the same vial, but at different temperatures. To begin with, the double helix's two DNA strands are separated, accomplished by heating the vial to 90-95 degrees Celsius (approximately 165 degrees Fahrenheit) for half a minute. However, at this high temperature, the primers are unable to bind to the DNA strands. Consequently, the vial is then cooled

to 55 degrees Celsius (around 100 degrees Fahrenheit). At this temperature, the primers bind or "anneal" to the ends of the DNA strands in roughly 20 seconds. The final step entails generating a complete copy of the templates. Given that Taq polymerase thrives at approximately 75 degrees Celsius (the same temperature found in hot springs where the bacterium was discovered), the vial's temperature is raised (Clarke 1). The Taq polymerase commences appending nucleotides to the primer and eventually produces a complementary copy of the template. Should the template contain an A nucleotide, the enzyme incorporates a T nucleotide onto the primer.If the template includes a G, it will add a C to the new chain, and so on until the end of the DNA strand, completing one PCR cycle. Each DNA fragment in the vial has been replicated at the end of the cycle. However, this cycle can be repeated 30 times or more. Each newly synthesized DNA fragment can serve as a new template, resulting in the production of 1 billion copies of a single DNA fragment after 30 cycles. Considering the time needed to adjust the temperature of the reaction vial, approximately three hours are required to obtain 1 million copies. PCR is valuable for researchers as it enables them to amplify specific regions of DNA for detection within large genomes. Researchers in the Human Genome Project are utilizing PCR to search for markers in cloned DNA segments and organize DNA fragments in libraries.
The ethical and safety dilemmas surrounding genetic engineering have led this emerging science to be misrepresented. Those opposed to technology and political extremists disseminate misinformation mixed with claims that genetic

engineering is unnatural and disrupts natural order. The ethical aspect of biotechnology can be addressed by examining the current state and trajectory of human evolution in society. The safety concern can be addressed by evaluating existing safety protocols in industries and reviewing the safety records of various bioengineering projects already implemented. The evolution of mankind can be divided into three fundamental stages.The first stage in human evolution, which spanned millions of years, gradually transformed Homo erectus into Homo sapiens. This transformation was brought about by natural selection, which led to numerous random mutations giving rise to human traits like hands and feet.
Following the full development of the human body and mind, the second stage witnessed humans transitioning from being wild foragers to forming agricultural societies. Natural selection received a helping hand as humans capitalized on random mutations in nature and selectively bred more productive plant and animal species. They harvested the most abundant wheat and replanted it, as well as bred the fastest horses with other equally speedy horses. Even in more recent history, the strongest black male slaves were paired with the hardest working female slaves.
The third stage of human evolution, still ongoing today, will not rely solely on chance mutations in nature. Instead, humans will have the ability to deliberately create these super-species without the limitations imposed by natural selection. By studying the natural progression of this evolution, it becomes clear that the third stage is a natural and inevitable plateau that humanity will reach. This level of control over our world may seem foreign, but so too would the idea of Homo erectus witnessing the construction of massive pyramids by the

Egyptians.
Many argue that genetic engineering will bring about unforeseen disasters and plunge our world into chaotic darkness. However, they fail to recognize that numerous precautions surrounding bioengineering are already in place.The Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RAC), created by the National Institute of Health, provides guidelines for research on engineered bacteria for industrial use. The RAC has strict guidelines that require Federal approval for research involving pathogenicity, which refers to the ability of a microbe to cause disease (Davis, Roche 69). It has been proven that most natural bacteria do not cause disease. Microbiologists have conducted extensive experimentation and demonstrated that they can engineer bacteria that are as safe as their natural counterparts (Davis, Rouche 70). The RAC reports that there have been no cases of illness or harm caused by recombinant bacteria and these bacteria are currently used safely in high school experiments (Davis, Rouche 69). To prevent bacteria from escaping labs, scientists have developed methods such as modifying the bacteria so that they will die if removed from the lab. This ensures complete safety for the outside world. There is a concern that if such bacteria were to escape, it could cause widespread damage like smallpox or anthrax. However, laboratory-created organisms are not as competitive as pathogens. In simpler terms, using the analogy of Frostbran on a field, even if you use a large amount it will not spread (Davis, Rouche 70).In 1987, Frostbran, developed by Steven Lindow at the University of California, Berkeley, was sprayed on a test field and determined to be harmless by a RAC committee (Thompson 104). The fear of the unknown has historically hindered scientific progress. Genetic factors play

a role in many diseases. The HGP has identified genes associated with cancers, Alzheimer's disease, and diabetes, providing hope for new methods to combat illness. The potential to develop customized drugs tailored to an individual's body chemistry is an exciting prospect for geneticists. This newfound knowledge not only offers the ability to treat diseases but also the opportunity to prevent them. However, with the ability to analyze our own genetic makeup comes a range of choices that could present challenges. Parental genetic testing and screening can provide foresight into potential serious physical impairments in their offspring. As more disease-causing genes are discovered, difficult decisions may arise, such as deciding whether to continue with the pregnancy or not. Some parents who carry the cystic fibrosis gene have already faced this dilemma when their unborn child was diagnosed with the disease.There are various concerns surrounding genetic blueprinting, such as potential privacy issues. It is also a possibility that governments could someday require genetic testing for couples intending to marry, which may lead to worries about government interference. Additionally, there may be a situation where governments pressure pregnant women carrying defective fetuses to undergo abortions due to concerns about the financial burden on healthcare systems for lifelong conditions. If gene-manipulation procedures advance enough to provide predictable outcomes, there is speculation that parents could design a child with specific desired traits. These traits could include physical attractiveness, superior intelligence, or athletic talent. The ethical aspect of these actions arises, questioning whether there is a right or wrong in such matters. Furthermore, the connection between genetic engineering or cloning and God is also a topic that requires contemplation for those

who believe in a higher power. Based on religious texts like Genesis, God created life on earth and considered it all to be good. Sanctity exists within species, and each was designed to reproduce according to their kind.The use of genetic engineering aims to correct any major deficiencies found in humans. Every species, including humans, has been designed by God with significant genetic diversity and potential. This is evident in the various breeds of dogs, cats, birds, cows, and the billions of unique individuals. Throughout history, humans have utilized this diversity to breed stronger and more beneficial plants and animals. However, advancing genetic engineering could potentially lead to unforeseen problems. Molecular biologists argue that the concept of species is not inherently sacred. Consequently, genetic engineering can be seen as interfering with God's creation. It is wise to exercise caution and voice concerns about this field. All scientific or technological advancements should undergo ethical scrutiny. Apart from safeguarding individual species, it is essential to consider the broader environmental impact. Just because we have the technological capability to do certain things does not mean they can be done safely. On the contrary, totalitarian societies may exploit certain genetic traits associated with physical violence to target individuals considered prone to or guilty of criminal acts.These concerns may seem far-fetched to some; however, they should not be disregarded due to the sad reality of ethnic cleansing in various regions in recent years. One ethical issue emerging in the field of genetics is genetic discrimination, which has already started gaining attention. A potential scenario is as follows: in the coming years, researchers will identify and locate almost all genes in

the human genome that either determine or contribute to diseases. For instance, we already know that Cystic Fibrosis is linked to chromosome 7, Huntingtons disease to chromosome 4, Alzheimers disease likely results from a defective gene on chromosome 21, certain instances of colon cancer have a genetic basis on chromosome 2, and so on. Many other diseases, including muscular dystrophy, sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease, various cancers, and more, also have identifiable genetic origins. While there is still more knowledge to acquire in this area, when it does arrive, it may be accompanied by a cost-effective method for genome testing to determine if an individual carries any disease-related genes. Screening for all genetic disorders could potentially become routine for newborns like the phenylketonuria (PKU) testing that has been conducted since the 1960s. Each person's individual genome would be stored in a database accessible by both ourselves and our healthcare providers in the future.The advantage of comprehensive medical care throughout one's life is that it allows for careful planning to delay the onset, appropriately treat, and potentially cure genetically-based diseases. However, insurability poses a problem that could lead to discrimination based on genetics, resulting in certain individuals being unable to obtain employment and therefore medical services. Even with a government-regulated program for basic health services, the need to purchase additional insurance for serious illnesses leaves people with specific genetic configurations vulnerable to discrimination. Insurance functions by sharing risk, where everyone contributes equally to the insurance pool when the risk is uncertain. Premiums can be standardized. However, if an individual's genetic disorders are known, this could justify charging higher premiums for those with a greater risk. Those whose

genes predict extended or expensive medical treatment may even be denied insurance. For 75% of Americans, medical insurance is connected to employment. Among the Fortune 500 companies, twelve already use genetic screening for employment purposes. While screening was previously justified for public health reasons, employers may increasingly utilize it to reduce the premium costs they pay for employee medical insurance.Underwriters have already started denying or limiting coverage for certain gene-related conditions like sickle-cell anemia, atherosclerosis, Huntington's disease, Down syndrome, and muscular dystrophy. This list could potentially grow. Currently, there are between thirty to forty million individuals in the United States who do not have enough or any medical coverage. Despite the promises of the Human Genome Project (HGP) for a better life, it could inadvertently create a new group of uninsured and impoverished individuals.

Just like the concept of humans flying or stepping foot on the moon, which was initially met with resistance and skepticism from the average citizens of the world, genetic engineering is currently in a period of fear and misunderstanding. However, as history has shown with great discoveries, it will eventually be realized and responsibly integrated into society. While in this skeptical stage, it is crucial for people worldwide to collaborate and address any potential issues that could arise.

We are on the verge of the most exciting leap in human evolution ever, and through knowledge and exploration, we should embrace it and all its possibilities. Nonetheless, we must carefully consider and contemplate before fully accepting the gift of a better human race.

Bibliography: Bible.English.New English.1961.The New English Bible.Cambridge, Eng.: Oxford University Press : Cambridge University Press, 1961."Bioethics: an Introduction." N. d.The given text contains

a list of sources with their respective titles and publication information. These sources include articles, books, and magazines that discuss various topics related to genetic engineering, bioethics, and the ethical implications of scientific advancements. The sources mentioned are:

1. "Genetic Engineering" by Bryan C. Clarke - Accessed on December 2, 1997 from http://www.med.upenn.edu/bioethic/outreach/bioforbegin/beginners.html.

2. "Genetic Engineering" from Microsoft (r) Encarta by Bryan C. Clarke - Published by Microsoft Corporation and Funk & Wagnalls Corporation in 1994.

3. "Sorcerer's Apprentice or Handmaiden to Humanity" by Bernard Davis and Lissa Roche - Published in USA TODAY: The Magazine of the American Scene GUSA on November 18, 1989, pages 68-70.

4. "Nucleic Acids" from Microsoft (r) Encarta by Seymour Z. Lewin - Published by Microsoft Corporation and Funk & Wagnalls Corporation.

5. "Ethical and Policy Issues of Human Cloning" by Harold T. Shapiro - Published in Journal Group: Sci/tech on July 11, 1997, pages 195-196. Accessed from CD-ROM UMI-Proquest.

6. "Bioprospecting or Biopiracy?" by Marilyn Berlin Snell - Published in Utne Reader in March/April 1996, pages 82-93. Also available on UTNE READER 1996.SIRS.

7. "Future Man" by Brian Stableford - Published by Crown Publishers, Inc. in New York in 1984.

8. "Improving Nature?: The Science and Ethics of Genetic Engineering" by Michael J Reiss and Roger Straughan - Published by Cambridge University Press in New York in 1996.

9. "The Most Hated Man in Science" by Dick Thompson - Published in Time on December 4, 1989, pages 102-104.

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