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Learning

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a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

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Behaviorism

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view that psychology should be an objective science that studies external behavior without any necessity to consider internal mental processes

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John B. Watson

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advocated behaviorism

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Ivan Pavlov

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1st Russian scientist to win Nobel Prize in medicine, discovered classical conditioning by accident, dog experiment

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Classical Conditioning

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a kind of learning in which a subject learns to associate one stimulus with another stimulus that is followed by a certain event, such that the subject learns to respond to the first stimulus as if it were the second one

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Unconditioned Stimulus

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a stimulus that naturally brings about a response you are looking at, without ay learning having to take place (food)

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Unconditioned Response

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a naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, a response that does not require learning in order to take place (drooling)

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Unconditioned

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natural, built-in, automatic, not requiring any learning in order to occur

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Neutral Stimulus

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a stimulus that does not (initially) bring about the response you are interested in (musical tone)

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Conditioned Stimulus

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an originally neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, takes on the ability to bring about the response that originally went with the unconditioned stimulus (musical tone)

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Conditioned Response

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a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that is now the conditioned stimulus (drooling)

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Conditioned

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not natural, not built-in, not automatic, something that would only happen if learning had occurred

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Acquisition

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the initial learning of a stimulus-response relationship in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of bringing about the conditioned response

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Extinction

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The diminishing of a conditioned response; specifically, in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus, until the conditioned response diminishes or disappears

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Spontaneous Recovery

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The reappearance of a previously extinguished response after a period of which there has been no training

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Generalization

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Following the establishment of a conditioned response, the tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus to bring about similar responses (some experts refer to this more specifically as "stimulus generalization")

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Discrimination

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the learned ability to tell the difference between the conditioned stimulus that will be followed by the unconditioned stimulus, and other, similar stimuli that will not be followed by the unconditioned stimulus

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Cognitions

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internal thought process

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Watson and Rayner

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early 1900s, wanted to prove that fear in a child could result from conditioning, once fear was conditioned it was generalized

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Difference between classical & operant conditioning

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In classical conditioning, the subject learns to form associations between events it does not control, while in operant conditioning, the subject learns associations between its own behavior and the events that result from it

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Operant Conditioning

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a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if it is followed by reinforcement and diminished if it is punished or not followed by reinforcement

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Respondent Behavior

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behavior that occurs automatically in response to certain stimuli

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Operant Behavior

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voluntary behavior that operates on th environment to produce either rewarding or punishing consequences

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Law of effect

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Behaviors that are followed by favorable consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by negative consequences become less likely (Thorndike)

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Skinner Box (Operant chamber)

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an isolated cage or chamber in which a subject (rat or pigeon) can do something (like push a bar or peck a key) in order to get a reward (like food or water), while a mechanical device records and counts the subject's responses

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Shaping

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an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal

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Reinforcer

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any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

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Primary Reinforcer

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an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

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Secondary or Conditioned Reinforcer

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a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

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Positive Reinforcement

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strengthens a response by adding a positive stimulus after the response; increases the probability that the subject will repeat the response that preceded it (the response that came before the positive reinforcement)

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Negative Reinforcement

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strengthens a response by removing a negative aversive, unpleasant stimulus after the response

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Terminal Goal

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the target behavior; the terminal goal must by defined in objectively measurable terms, so that there is no question whether it has or has not been achieved

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Baseline Behavior

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the behavior patterns of the subject before training begins; must be objectively measurable, so that it is clear whether or not any progress is being made

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Reinforcing Successive Approximations to the Goal

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rewarding any slight behavioral change that is a step in the right direction; steps in the wrong direction are ignored

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Immediate reinforcer

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reward right after (animals)

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Delayed reinforcer

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reward comes quite a bit after action, reward a couple days from now (not for animals, but people)

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Continuous Reinforcement

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reinforce the subject every time you get desired behavior; speeds up acquisition stage, but not very practical

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Partial reinforcement (intermittent)

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reinforce response only some of the time; acquisition stage will take longer, more practical

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Fixed ratio schedule or reinforcement

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reward every same number of correct responses; high rate of responding correctly

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Variable Ratio Schedule of reinforcement

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reward on average for correct response

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Fixed interval schedule of reinforcement

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choose interval of time and always use it; you don't have to reward every correct response, but subject catches on & begins to slack off

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Variable interval schedule or reinforcement

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reward comes after random amounts of time

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Punishment

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an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

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Positive punishment

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administering an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus (usually after undesirable behavior)

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Negative punishment

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removing a pleasant stimulus (usually after undesirable behavior)

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Criticism of Skinner

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you need to factor in the mind more

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Overjustification effect

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the effect of promising a reward for doing something a person already likes to do, often with the result that, once the reward is removed, the subject enjoys and engages in it less than if it had never been rewarded at all (overdo reward)

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Observational Learning

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learning by observing others (Albert Bandura), pro-social behavior, but produces copycat crimes

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Memory

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any indication that learning has persisted over time through the storage and retrieval of information

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Encoding

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the processing of information into the memory

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Storage

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the retention of encoded information over time

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Retrieval

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the process of getting information out of memory storage

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elements of 3 Stage processing model of memory

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sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory, (working memory)

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Sensory memory

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the immediate and very brief initial recording of information in the memory system by the sense organs

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Short-term memory

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memory of limited capacity that holds a few items briefly, before the information is either stored or forgotten

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Long-term memory

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your relatively permanent store of memories, with virtually unlimited capacity

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Working memory

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an active processing of selected incoming information and also relevant information retrieved from long-term memory, on a temporary basis to perform some mental task until the result is either discarded or processed into long-term memory

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Automatic processing

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encoding routine information without conscious effort or attention

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Effortful processing

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encoding that requires conscious attention/effort/study

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Ebbinghaus

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early memory researcher

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things that help us learn

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1) making material meaningful 2) incorporating visual imagery 3) relating it to something you already know 4) relating it to yourself (self-reference) 5) spacing study out over time (not cram) 6) sleep

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Serial position effect

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tendency to recall the last and first items in a list or series the best; the last items the best immediately, but later the first items the best

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typical duration of short-term memory

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about a 1/2 minute, because of limited capacity

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capacity of short-term memory

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about 7 items plus or minus a couple

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Ebbinghaus principle about long-term memory

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when it comes to long-term memories of complex events, our actual memory is just a few high points, and we reconstruct or fill in the rest each time we recall that memory

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effect of stress on memory

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when you are stressed or excited, your body releases hormones that enhance memory

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Flashbulb memory

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vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event, not as accurate as you may think

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Amnesia

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loss of memory

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Implicit Memory (or Procedural)

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retention, without conscious recollection, or skills and dispositions

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Explicit Memory (or Declarative)

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memory for facts and experiences that you can consciously recall and declare (put into words)

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Hippocampus

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a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage (latin word for seahorse, does not develop til about 3)

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3 signs that something has been learned or retained

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1) recall 2) recognition 3) relearning

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Recall

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retrieving information that was learned earlier

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Recognition

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identifying items that are previously learned

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Relearning

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learning something a second time faster than when the material was originally learned

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Priming

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activation of particular associations in memory, by remembering the right retrieval cues

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Context effects

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tendency to remember things better in the same context as you learned them

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Mood-congruent memory

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tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood

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3 general causes of forgetting

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1) failure to encode information 2) failure to store information 3) failure to retrieve information

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Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve

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most of what you forget you forget right away, but then forgetting curve tapers off

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Repression

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idea of Sigmund Freud if something is too painful we repress the memory, but it still affects your actions doesn't happen very often

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Misinformation effect

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new inputs can significantly change old existing memories, without your awareness (lawyers use often)

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false memories

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very easy to implant

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eyewitness memory

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not very reliable a confident witness carries jury no matter the accuracy the best way is to give little amount of cues in questions

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Source amnesia

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when we attribute events we have experienced, heard or read about, or imagined to the wrong source, such as believing that we actually experienced something we only heard about or imagined

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Rosy retrospection

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the tendency to remember past events more positively than we actually evaluated them at the time that they happened (good ole' days)

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3 sins of forgetting

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1) Absent mindedness-inattention to details 2) Transience-memory decay over time 3) Blocking -tip of tongue phenomenon

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3 sins of distortion

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1) Misattribution-source amnesia 2) Suggestibility-misinformation effect 3) Bias-influenced by current attitude, mood

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2 sin of intrusion

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Persistence-inability to forget, escape, or diminish traumatic memories

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Memory of our own conversations

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People's memory for their own conversations is pathetically poor

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Dr. C's Vitally important info on memory

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Our memories seem far more accurate than they really are

General Psychology – Unit 2 – Flashcards

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