Final: Chapter 15 – Flashcards
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Sex: biological encoding as male or female -XX or XY Gender: a social and cultural description of being male or female -Not biology -Societal values, expectations and stereotypes
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What is the difference between sex and gender?
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sex differences in behavior emerged because they offer reproductive advantages 3-The greater male propensity for impulsivity and physical aggression may have provided them with reproductive advantages and in hunting. (rough and tumble play) 2-Females' tendency to build strong alliances with other females could have insured assistance with childcare, benefiting their offspring.(play parenting)
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What does the evolutionary approach to gender development say? What are 2 bases for this claim?
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human evolution as maximizing our capacity for behavioral flexibility as an adaptation to environmental variability -physical rather than dispositional differences and proposes that these differences have behavioral and social consequences
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What does the biosocial theory emphasize? What is the main focus?
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biology is not destiny
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What is the main claim of the biosocial theory?
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testing how hormones and brain functioning are related to variations in gender development
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What do neuroscience approaches focus on?
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different ratios of male and female sex hormones
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What do neuroscience approaches say gender differences in behavior reflect?
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androgens -higher levels in males -affect physical development and functioning from the prenatal period onward -testosterone is an androgen
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What hormones in particular have an effect on gender differences in behavior? Why? What is an example?
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when certain sex-linked hormones affect brain differentiation and organization during prenatal development or at puberty
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When do organizational influences occur?
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1. Organizational 2. Activational
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What 2 influences can hormones have on the nervous system?
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when fluctuations in sex-linked hormone levels influence the activation of certain brain and behavioral repsonses
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When do activational influences occur?
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male and female brains show some small differences in physical structure 1. Corpus callosum tends to be large and more dense in women 2. Male brains tend to show more unilateral activation when engaged in cognitive tasks- female brains show bilateral activation
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What have neuroscience approaches discovered about brain structure and functioning in regards to gender differences? (2 specific things)
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Data is inconclusive because genes and environment are ALWAYS interacting with each other and it is impossible to separate out the two -there are also small effect sizes
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Why should biology be considered with a grain of salt?
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1. The ways that children learn gender-typed attitudes and behaviors through observation, inference, and practice. (So not biological! Shaped by the environment) 2. the role the environment plays in terms of the different role models, opportunities and incentives that boys and girls might experience
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What 2 things do cognitive theories of gender development emphasize?
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active gender self-socialization
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What do cognitive theories stress?
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a process through which children's biases to behave in accord with their gender identity is strengthened by their greater attention to and involvement with entities and activities deemed appropriate to their gender -active-child theme
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What is gender self-socialization? What theme is it an example of?
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Kohlberg -that children develop a mature understanding of gender in 3 stages -Children seek out same-sex models after they have achieved gender constancy(age 7)
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Who came up with the cognitive developmental theory? What did he say? What was his main claim?
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1. Gender identity 2. Gender stability 3. Gender constancy
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What are the 3 stages of Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory?
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About 30 months -they become aware of their own gender -"I am a male or I am not a male"
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When did Kohlberg say children achieve gender identity? What does this mean?
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By around 3-4 years of age -They come to realize gender is stable over time -"Look at me, I am still a female and my brother is still a male!"
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When did Kohlberg say children achieve gender stability? What does this mean?
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Around 5-7 years of age -they realize gender is invariant in spite of superficial changes in appearance or activities -"Even when I put pants on, I am still a female!"
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When did Kohlberg say children achieve gender constancy? What does this mean?
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children show gender-based preferences long before they have acquired gender constancy or have begun attending selectively to same-sex models
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What is the criticism of Kohlbergs theory?
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Proposes that children's understanding of gender develops through the construction of gender schemas, which are mental representations incorporating everything they know about gender
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What does the gender schema theory propose?
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Gender schema theory says the motivation to enact gender-typed behavior begins soon after children can label other people's and their own gender during toddlerhood
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How does gender schema theory differ from Kohlbergs theory?
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ingroup/outgroup gender schema
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What do children use to classify other people as being "the same as me" or not?
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a schema consisting of detailed knowledge about how to do things that are consistent with one's own gender
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What is an own-gender schema?
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Bias in processing and remembering information about gender ex: trucks are for boys, not for me, dolls are for girls and for me
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What biases are gender schemas responsible for?
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1. Retain schema-consistent 2. ignore or distort schema-inconsistent information
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What 2 twin tendencies help to perpetuate gender stereotypes that have little or no basis in reality?
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Explicit instruction
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How can gender schemas be modified?
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the theory that posits gender is a social identity in children's development -addresses the influence of group membership on people's self-concepts and behaviors with others(ingroup/outgroup bias)
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What is the social identity theory? What does it address?
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a tendency to evaluate individuals and characteristics of the ingroup as superior to those of the out group -related to in-group assimilation
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What is an in-group bias? What is it related to?
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a process whereby individuals are socialized to conform to the group's norms, demonstrating the characteristics that define the ingroup
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What is in-group assimilation?
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triadic model of reciprocal causation among personal factors, environmental factors, and behavior patterns
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What does the social cognitive theory depict?
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1. Tuition 2. Enactive experience 3. Modeling
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In what 3 ways does the social cognitive theory say learning about gender occurs?
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direct teaching that occurs during gender socialization
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What is tuition?
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experiencing the reactions one's behavior evokes in others
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What is enactive experience?
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1. Attention 2. Memory 3. Production 4. Motivation
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What 4 key processes does observational learning of gender-role information involve? (social cognitive theory)
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Children monitor their own behavior and evaluate how well it matches personal standards -A good match leads to pride and self-efficacy. -A poor match leads to shame.
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What does social cognitive theory say about how children monitor their behavior? What does a "good match" lead to? What does a "poor match" lead to?
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1. Chores are different for boys and girls 2. Gender-essentialist statements
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In what 2 ways does gender socialization occur in the home?
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opportunity structure: the economic resources it offers and people's understanding of those resources -Opportunities for members of a cultural community can vary depending on gender, income and other factors and are reflected by dominant adult roles within the cultural community
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What is a basic feature of the macrosystem of the bioecological model? (name and define) How is this related to gender?
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child socialization practices prepare children for adult roles
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What does the bioecological model say occurs in the microsystems?
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different expectations for each gender stem from the division of labor between men and women in a given society
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What is social role theory?
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1. Observation 2. Inference 3. Practice
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What are 3 ways social cognitive theorist believe that children learn about gender through watching same-sex models?
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appear to be able to tell the difference, but they don't understand what it means to be male or female
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What do infants know about gender?
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toddlerhood
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When do children begin showing distinct patterns of gender development?
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children begin forming gender-related expectations about the kinds of objects and activities that are typically associated with males and females
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What happens in regards to gender in the later half of a child's 2nd year?
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most children come to know which gender group they belong to
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What happens between a child's 2nd and 3rd birthday in regards to gender?
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by age 3 -behavior becomes gender-differentated (particularly in sex-typed play)
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When are gender terms used in speech? What also happens at this age?
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during the preschool period -gender-segregation
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When do children first show increases in sex-typed play? What also occurs during this period?
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further self-socialization of gender differences -avoiding peers who violate gender-atypical patterns -no it is visible across the world
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What does gender segregation promote? How? Does this only occur in america?
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children have attained gender constancy, and their ideas about gender are more consolidated.
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What happens around age 7 in regards to gender?
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children start to show a clear understanding that gender is a social category and that gender roles are social conventions not biological outcomes
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What happens around 9-10 years old in regards to gender?
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children realize that gender discrimination is unfair and notice when it occurs -Affected by cognitive factors (understanding stereotypes), individual factors (self-concept) and situational factors
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What happens in middle childhood in regards to gender knowledge? What 3 things promote this understanding?
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value self-assertion and peer groups are more likely to reflect norms of dominance, self reliance and hiding vulnerability
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What gender-role norms for behavior do boys establish and value in middle childhood?
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value affiliation or a balance of self-assertion and affiliation are peer groups are more likely to reflect norms of intimacy, collaboration and emotional sharing
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What gender-role norms for behavior do girls establish and value in middle childhood?
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increased gender-role intensification or increased gender-role flexibility.
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What are 2 things adolescence can be a period of?
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heightened concerns with adhering to traditional gender roles
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What is gender role intensification?
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advances in cognitive development that can allow adolescents (more often girls than boys) to transcend traditional conventions and pursue a more flexible range of interests
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What is gender-role flexibility?
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peer contacts are primarily with members of the same gender, but cross-gender interactions and friendships are usually more common than they are in childhood.
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What happens in early adolescence in regards to cross-gendered friendships?
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1. Self-disclosure 2. Supportive listening
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What 2 things are associated with relationship satisfaction in adolescence?
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They sex differences are not very significant- there is a lot of overlap and the majority do not significantly differ!
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What are the basic truths regarding sex differences across domains?
