FDR: The Presidency During Crisis Essay Example

he took swift action to pass the most comprehensive peacetime legislative program in U.S. history. Through various measures, Roosevelt prioritized immediate recovery and subsequent reforms to address the flaws in the economic system that led to its collapse. Despite being the minority political party at the time, Roosevelt endeavored to support every major interest group in the U.S. economy and maintain the backing of many former Republicans. To achieve consensus among different factions, Roosevelt carefully selected his Cabinet members who were geographically and politically diverse. This group consisted of both liberal and conservative Democrats, three Republicans, and Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins who notably became the first woman in this position. Perkins praised President Roosevelt as a fair and honest gentleman to work with (Thompson, 1987;pp.73). President Roosevelt aimed to appeal to a wide range of people with his legislative program by initially passing several conservative measures to gain confidence from businessmen and bankers. He also addressed depositors running on banks by temporarily closing all banks until Congress could pass a cautious measure allowing sound ones to reopen during a special session on March 9th.
In March of the same year, Roosevelt fulfilled an important campaign promise by introducing a program of significant government economy. These emergency banking and economy acts garnered enthusiastic support from the majority of voters; however, Roosevelt acknowledged that they would have limited impact on real recovery. As he prepared for the next steps, Roosevelt sent a series of messages and draft bills to Congress outlining the early New Deal program.

Through federal funds for relief efforts, Roosevelt gained congressional support to establish the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), which provided funds to

state relief agencies for direct relief. The New Deal implemented various measures to address economic challenges at the time. One such measure was the creation of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), employing thousands of young men in reforestation and flood-control projects. Additionally, mortgage relief offered assistance to millions of farmers and homeowners.

The Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), serving as the key loan agency during the New Deal, received expanded powers to provide loans to both small and large enterprises. Although not initially intended for extensive public spending, these agencies injected substantial funds into the economy, leading to stimulating recovery within a few years.

The New Deal also included two major acts focused on restoring farm prosperity and encouraging business activity.The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) was established in 1933 with the goal of increasing farm prices and improving the income of farmers. To achieve this, subsidies were given to producers of seven key commodities who agreed to reduce production. These subsidies were funded by a processing tax. President Roosevelt saw this as a temporary solution supported by farm organization leaders and also hoped that modest inflation would help raise farm prices.

Roosevelt had a broader vision for rural planning, which included relocating farmers to better lands and encouraging unemployed individuals to move to rural and village areas. In 1935, he created the Resettlement Administration specifically to assist smaller, poorer farmers. However, when the Supreme Court invalidated the processing tax in 1936, Roosevelt shifted the focus of the AAA program towards soil conservation.

Throughout his New Deal initiatives, both farm leaders and Congress successfully prioritized raising farm prices. While there was some gradual improvement in farm income over time, it is

uncertain whether this can be attributed solely to FDR's legislation or if several years of severe drought played a role.

In response to demands from businessmen for government stabilization and from labor for shorter work weeks, Roosevelt proposed the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) in 1933. One major aspect of this program was an allocation of $3,300,000,000 for public works projects.If the money had been injected into the economy quickly, it could have greatly contributed to recovery. However, Roosevelt wanted to make sure that it would be wisely spent on self-liquidating public works through the Public Works Administration (PWA). Despite his expansionary rhetoric, Roosevelt proceeded cautiously in practice, resulting in limited impact of the PWA until later in the New Deal.

The National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) created the National Recovery Administration (NRA) to enforce fair practice codes in different industries. These codes, negotiated by industry representatives and labor, established minimum wages, maximum hours, and fair trade practices. The goal was to stimulate production, raise prices, and satisfy organized labor. However, these codes did not provide much protection for consumers.

Despite this fact, labor received guarantees on wages, hours, and collective bargaining rights although some bargaining techniques were prohibited. Initially, there was an economic recovery period as manufacturers produced goods expecting higher prices under the codes. However, this boom was short-lived as prices increased faster than purchasing power leading to a collapse in fall 1933. By February 1934,the establishment of new codes had significantly slowed down. A total of 557 basic codes and 208 supplementary codes had been established but enforcing them was challenging.In 1935, dissatisfaction with the NRA and President Roosevelt grew within the business community. This

discontent reached its peak in May of that year when the Supreme Court invalidated the code system, known as the Schechter Decision. Despite its flaws, the NRA had helped competitive industries like textiles and implemented significant reforms now found in other legislation. These reforms included federal regulation of wages and hours, protection for collective bargaining, and banning child labor in interstate commerce.

To aid the economy in late 1933, Roosevelt pursued alternative measures like experimenting with "managed currency." This involved reducing the gold content of the dollar and increasing silver prices through substantial purchases. While this led to minor domestic price increases, it made the dollar more affordable overseas, strengthening foreign trade for the United States. Roosevelt received extensive advice and guidance on this aspect of his actions.

In January 1934, he stabilized the gold content of the dollar at around 59% of its previous value. Although it provided limited recovery at that time, managed currency set an important precedent.

By fall 1934, Roosevelt's program was somewhat successful in delivering economic recovery but clashed with conservatives including many businessmen.The argument made was that certain aspects of the program violated the Constitution, created uncertainties that hindered recovery, and deprived government obligation holders of their rightful returns. Despite the dissatisfaction among many unemployed individuals who believed that the New Deal was insufficient, there was a growing interest in more extensive reforms like socialism and communism. In response to the left's threat, Roosevelt emphasized the need for reform in his January 1935 annual message to Congress. This wasn't so much a shift from a first to a second New Deal, but rather an accelerated implementation of pre-planned reform measures. In 1933,

Roosevelt successfully established the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) to address concerns about flood control, affordable hydroelectric power, and regional planning in impoverished areas. Additionally, he proposed two investor protection laws: the Truth-in-Securities Act of 1933 and the creation of the Regulatory Securities and Exchange Commission in 1934. To alleviate growing discontent among the poor, especially those without jobs, further legislation was passed in 1935.The text discusses various government actions and policies implemented during Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency, particularly in 1935 and 1936. These measures aimed to address unemployment, provide relief for workers, regulate utility companies, introduce progressive taxes for the wealthy, and strengthen labor rights. They included the Social Security Act, Works Progress Administration (WPA), National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act), National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), Public Utility Holding Company Act, and a tax increase on high-income individuals and corporations. While these initiatives weakened left-wing opposition to Roosevelt and garnered support from farmers, laborers, and the underprivileged in his re-election campaign of 1936, they further alienated conservatives. Ultimately, Roosevelt won by a large margin in terms of popular votes except for Maine and Vermont.Roosevelt's reputation suffered in the summer of 1937 when he was blamed for labor issues resulting from organizing drives in industries like steel and automobile manufacturing. The Wagner Act led to violent strikes by unions. Roosevelt personally implemented government aid for all workers, including the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 that ensured wages and hours. However, union membership grew to around 9,500,000 by 1941 while many middle-class individuals returned to the Republican Party (Thompson). In addition, a severe economic recession in late 1937 posed further challenges for Roosevelt. Despite significant recovery

up until then, Roosevelt chose to drastically cut government spending to balance the budget, causing the economy to regress back to its 1932 levels. Businessmen blamed New Deal spending policies while Roosevelt held them accountable and introduced an anti-monopoly program as a response. By October 1937, extensive government spending resumed and by June 1938, the crisis had subsided. From this point on, several conservative southern Democrats who chaired important congressional committees openly opposed the New Deal. In an attempt to defeat some of these individuals in the primaries in 1938, Roosevelt was accused of being a "dictator" trying to carry out a purge.Although the Democrats won the November elections, the Republicans gained eighty seats in the House and seven in the Senate. This enabled a coalition between Republicans and conservative Democrats that could hinder the President's agenda. However, despite these challenges, Roosevelt managed to pass significant reform legislation and explore new areas during his second administration.

During this time, efforts were made to combat erosion through soil conservation and the construction of public works like public housing and slum clearance. Additionally, various New Deal initiatives such as social security, agricultural programs, TVA (Tennessee Valley Authority), and SEC (Securities Exchange Commission) became permanent functions of the federal government.

By 1939, foreign policy began to overshadow domestic policy. Even before taking office, Roosevelt supported Hoover's decision not to recognize Japanese conquests in Manchuria. From the start of his presidency, Roosevelt was heavily involved in foreign policy matters related mainly to addressing the effects of the Depression.

In early summer 1933, he opposed international currency stabilization but eventually stabilized the dollar by 1934. He also provided assistance to Great Britain and

France to protect their currencies from dictatorial nations. In November of that year, he recognized the government of Soviet Union with hopes of promoting trade.

Furthermore, opportunities arose for negotiating reciprocal trade agreements with multiple nations starting in 1935 while fostering better relations with Latin American countries seemed promising at that time.In his first inaugural address, Roosevelt promised to be a "good neighbor," which Secretary of State Cordell Hull interpreted as a commitment to avoid unilateral U.S. intervention in Latin America. As the possibility of European war became more imminent, the Good Neighbor Policy evolved into agreements for collective security and mutual defense, according to Thompson. In the early years of the New Deal, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, like most Americans, sought to prevent the United States from becoming entangled in any upcoming conflicts. To achieve this goal, he supported a series of neutrality laws starting with the Neutrality Act of August 1935. However, after witnessing Japan's aggressive actions in northern China in 1937, Roosevelt changed his stance. During a speech in Chicago that October, he suggested that peace-loving nations collaborate to quarantine aggressors. Although it initially seemed like he was only proposing severing diplomatic ties, this idea raised significant concerns nationwide and caused him to hesitate in developing a collective security approach. When Japan attacked and sank the U.S. gunboat "Panay" on the Yangtze River in December 1937, Roosevelt promptly accepted their apologies despite deteriorating relations between both countries over time. However, Leuchtenberg points out that the rapid rise of Adolf Hitler in Europe posed an even greater threat.When World War II started in September 1939, Roosevelt convened a special session of Congress to modify

the Neutrality Act and permit warring countries to buy weapons on a "cash-and-carry" basis. In the spring and early summer of 1940, with Hitler's aggressive actions and France's collapse, Roosevelt and Congress shifted their focus towards defense preparations and providing assistance to Great Britain without officially entering the war. As part of this effort, Roosevelt traded fifty outdated destroyers for eight bases in the Western Hemisphere with Great Britain. The debate between isolationists and supporters of aiding Britain intensified as isolationists feared America would be dragged into the conflict. During the 1940 presidential campaign, both candidates (Roosevelt and Wendell L. Willkie) promised to keep the nation out of foreign wars; however, isolationists tended to support Willkie while those advocating strong measures against Hitler leaned towards Roosevelt. Despite a narrower victory margin than before, Roosevelt secured a third term. By securing passage of the Lend-Lease Act in March 1941 after a contentious congressional debate, Roosevelt gained authority to financially support aid for Great Britain and its allies. As Germany's submarine assaults on goods bound for Europe increased, the US Navy gradually implemented more drastic measures to safeguard them.During the autumn season, President Roosevelt authorized the Navy to "shoot on sight" at German submarines. In August, while aboard a battleship off Newfoundland, he held a meeting with British Prime Minister Churchill and together they signed the Atlantic Charter. This charter aimed to secure national self-determination, enhance economic opportunities, ensure freedom from fear and want, guarantee freedom of the seas, and promote disarmament.

Simultaneously, the United States found itself confronted with war in the Pacific due to Japan's expansionist actions in East Asia. Japan had formed an alliance with

Germany and Italy during this time. Recognizing these actions as part of Axis aggression, Roosevelt began withholding supplies from Japan. Despite attempts at negotiations between both countries, they were ultimately unsuccessful.

By late November, Roosevelt was aware that war with Japan was imminent as Japanese fleet units and transports set sail. The devastating attack on Pearl Harbor took place on December 7th, 1941, prompting Congress to swiftly pass a war resolution within hours. On December 11th of that same year, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States.

While majority of Americans supported Roosevelt's decision for war involvement, there were politicians who harbored suspicions about his choices due to their personal knowledge of him. Dewey specifically asserted that FDR possessed prior knowledge about the events leading up to Pearl Harbor and should have faced impeachment rather than being reelected (Briggs, 1992).

In order to gain support from conservatives in Congress for prosecuting the war effort against Axis powers, Roosevelt made compromises by eliminating several New Deal agencies. He emphasized during a press conference that "Dr.Win the War" had temporarily replaced "Dr.New Deal," solely for the duration of wartime operations.Roosevelt showed resourcefulness in his efforts to combat inflation, although not always with success. Immediately after Pearl Harbor, the top priority was to rapidly increase war production. Roosevelt had already started experimenting with defense agencies in 1939 to mobilize the economy, eventually leading to an effective organization. By the time of Pearl Harbor, US war production almost matched that of Germany and Japan combined. By 1944, it exceeded the total production of all Axis nations.

During the war, Roosevelt focused on strategic issues, negotiations with allies, and planning for peace.

He played a key role in establishing an alliance among all countries fighting against the Axis powers. Roosevelt and Churchill held several conferences during the war where any reported differences were resolved amicably. The earlier conferences mainly discussed timing for a landing in France, with Britain successfully delaying it multiple times.

The Normandy Invasion, also known as the great invasion, took place in June 1944. Previously following British guidance, the United States invaded North Africa in 1942, Sicily in July 1943, and Italy in September 1943. In January 1943 at an important meeting in Casablanca,Morocco President Roosevelt declared the doctrine of unconditional surrender for the Axis powers after consulting with Prime Minister Churchill.The decision was made to prevent disagreements among the Allies and misunderstandings by the Germans, which had caused issues during the 1918 Armistice. Roosevelt faced challenges in building friendly relations with the Soviet Union during the war. While accepting lend-lease supplies from the United States, the Soviet Union rarely shared its military plans or cooperated with its Western Allies. Roosevelt believed that maintaining peace after the war relied on fostering friendly relations with the Soviet Union and gaining Joseph Stalin's trust.

By February of 1945, when Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met again at Yalta in Crimea, it seemed that the war was coming to an end in Europe. The United States anticipated a determined defense from Japan that could last another eighteen months or more. Although work on developing an atomic bomb was progressing, its power was expected to be less than what it ultimately turned out to be. Consequently, Roosevelt and his military advisers were enthusiastic about receiving assistance from the Soviet Union in

Asia. In exchange for Stalin's commitment to join Japan's war effort, Roosevelt and Churchill offered concessions in East Asia.

Regarding Eastern Europe, previous decisions were approved and plans were made for establishing democratic governments. If Stalin had followed these arrangements as expected by Roosevelt and Churchill, there would have been minimal room for criticism.
The agreements were open to different interpretations by the Soviet Union, leading to unclear definitions. In response to Soviet accusations, Roosevelt sent a sharp telegram to Stalin in mid-March (Lash). Despite his failing health since January 1944, Roosevelt aimed to establish an effective international organization, the United Nations, for maintaining peace in the future. He planned to attend a conference on April 25th, 1945 in San Francisco where representatives from fifty nations would draft a United Nations charter. However, during the 1944 campaign for his fourth term against Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York, political opponents tried to exploit Roosevelt's deteriorating health. Despite this challenge, he narrowly won the election but sadly passed away on April 12th, 1945 due to a severe cerebral hemorrhage (Thompson).

Throughout his presidency, Roosevelt had little time for personal matters and was both adored and despised as a public figure in American history. Critics accused him of being shallow and incompetent while having dictatorial ambitions and cunning tactics. However, his supporters hailed him as the savior of the country's economy and defender of global democracy. It was widely recognized that he possessed exceptional skills in rallying popular support and appointing diverse leaders within his administration.According to many experts, his administration was remarkably effective despite occasional confusion and overlapping authority. Furthermore, he brought a strong sense of moral leadership

to the presidency, as articulated in 1932 and carried through times of peace and war (Marks) [1].

References:
[1] Briggs, P.J., (1992, January).General MacArthur and the presidential election of 1944., Vol.22, Presidential Studies Quarterly, pp.31.
[2] Cooper Jr., John.(1996, June).Great expectations and shadowlands: American presidents and their reputations in the 20th century., Vol.72, Virginia Quarterly Review, pp.377.
[3] Davis, Kenneth S., (1973).FDR: The Beckoning of Destiny, 1882-1928.New York: Free Press.
[4] Ferrell, Robert H. (1994).Choosing Truman: The Democratic Convention of 1944 Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press.
[5] Freidel, Frank.(1952-73).Franklin D. Roosevelt - 4 volumes.New York City: N.Y.,(1994).
[6] Info Break With Author Herbert Abrams Weekend Edition Sunday (NPR), November 27th , 1994
[7] Lash Joseph P..(1976) Roosevelt & Churchill Bennett Leuchtenburg Hempstead NY
William E.(1963) Franklin D.Roosevelt & New Deal Boston MA Niffin Pub
Marks F.W.(1988) Wind over Sand : Diplomacy of Franklin Roosevelt Little Rock AR Antennae Books
Thompson K.W.ed,(1987)The Roosevelt Presidency New York NY Murphy & Sons
Ward Geoffrey C..(1995) FDR Object Of Her Adoration Houghton Mifflin Company