Exam 1 Chapters 1-5 – Flashcards

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which level of structural organization is composed of two or more different types of tissues that work together to perform a specific function?
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organs are composed of two or more different types of tissues that work together to perform a specific function
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what is the main difference between negative and positive feedback systems?
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the difference between a negative and positive feedback system is that in negative feedback systems the response reverses the original stimulus, but in positive feedback systems the response enhances the original stimulus.
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what is the usefulness of defining one standard anatomical position?
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having one standard position allows directional terms to be clearly defined so that any body part can be described in relation to any other part.
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which plane divides the heart into anterior and posterior portions?
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the frontal plane divides the heart into anterior and posterior portions
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there is much interest in using stem cells to help in the treatment of diseases such as type 1 diabetes, which is due to a malfunction of some of the normal cells in the pancreas. What would make stem cells useful in disease treatment?
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stem cells are undifferentiated cells, research using stem cells has shown that these undifferentiated cells may be promoted to differentiate into the specific cells needed to replace those which are damaged or malfunctioning.
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noninvasive diagnostic techniques
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observation, palpation, auscultation, percussion
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autopsy
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postmortem exam of the body and and dissection of its internal organs,may be useful in resolving disputes between beneficiaries and insurance companies
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diagnosis
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science and skill of distinguishing one disorder from another, the patients symptoms and signs,medical history,physical exam,and lab tests provide the basis for making a diagnosis
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free radicals and antioxidants
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there are several sources of free radicals; exposure to ultraviolet sunlight, exposure to x-rays, and some that occur during normal metabolic processes,(carbon tetrachloride) used in dry cleaning gives rise to free radicals when it participates with metabolic reactions in the body. disorders/diseases/conditions linked to oxygen-derived free radicals; cancer, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's, emphysema, diabetes, cataracts, macular degeneration, rheumatoid arthritis, and general deterioration with aging. important dietary antioxidants;selenium, zinc, beta-carotene, vitamins C/E, red/blue/purple fruits, are thought to slow the pace of damage
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artificial sweeteners
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aspartame(NutraSweet/Equal), 200 times sweeter than sucrose, adds virtually no calories to diet because it is used in small amounts saccharin(sweet 'n low) 400 times sweeter than sucrose, zero calories, passes through the body un-metabolized sucralose(splenda) 600 times sweeter than sucrose, passes through the body un-metabolized artificial sweeteners do not cause tooth decay
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fatty acids and health and disease
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a group of fatty acids call essential fatty acids(EFAs) are essential to human health, cannot be made by the body and therefore must obtained from foods/supplements omega 3/6 and cis-fatty acid are among the more important fatty acids omega 3/6, promote health by protecting against heart disease/stroke/bone loss/arthritis/skin disorders/mental functions sources of omega 3; flaxseed, fatty fish, oils with large amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids, fish oils, walnuts sources of omega 6; most processed foods, eggs, baked goods, oils with large amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids, meats especially organ meats cis-fatty acids are beneficial until heated when they change to trans-fatty acid, the risk including in trans-fatty acids that increase triglycerides; heart/cardiovascular disease
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Embryology
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the first 8 weeks of development after fertilization of a human egg
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Developmental biology
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The complete development of an individual from fertilization to death
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Cell biology
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cellular structure and function
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Histology
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microscopic structure of tissues
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Gross anatomy
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structures that can be examined without a microscope
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Systemic anatomy
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structures of specific systems of the body such as nervous and respiratory
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Regional anatomy
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specific regions of the body such as head or chest
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Surface anatomy
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surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy through visualization and palpation
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Imaging anatomy
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body structures that can be visualized with techniques such as x-rays,MRI, and CT scans
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Pathological anatomy
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structural changes associated with disease
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Neurophysiology
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functional properties of nerve cells
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Endocrinology
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hormones(chemical regulators in the blood) and how they control body functions
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Cardiovascular physiology
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functions of the heart and blood vessels
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Immunology
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the body's defense against disease-causing agents
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Respiratory physiology
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functions of the air passage way and lungs
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Renal physiology
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functions of the kidneys
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Exercise physiology
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changes in cell and organ functions due to muscular activity
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Pathophysiology
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functional changes associated with disease and aging
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Superior
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toward the head or the upper part of a structure
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Inferior
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away from the head or lower part of a structure
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Anterior
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nearer to or at the front of the body
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Posterior
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nearer to or at the back of the body
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Medial
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nearer to the midline
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Lateral
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farther from the midline
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Intermediate
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between two structures
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ipsilateral
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on the same side of the body as another structure
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contralateral
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on the opposite side of the body
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proximal
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nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk, nearer to the origination of a structure
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distal
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farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk, farther from the origination of a structure
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deep
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away from the surface of the body
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superficial
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toward or on the surface of the body
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anatomy
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the science and the relationships among structures
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physiology
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the science of body functions
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dissection
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the careful cutting apart of body structures to study their relationships
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six levels of structural organization in the body
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chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, and organismal
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cells
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basic structural and functional living units of an organism and are the smallest living units in the human body
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tissues
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groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function
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organs
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two or more different types of tissues, have specific functions and usually a recognizable shape
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systems
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related organs that have a common function
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organism
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any living individual
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11 systems of the human organism
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...
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integumentary
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components: skin, hair, finger/toe nails, oil/sweat glands functions: protection, insulation, stores fat, temperature regulation, eliminates wastes, helps make vitamin D, sensations; warm, cold, pain
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skeletal
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components: bones, joints, cartilage functions: supports and protects body, provides surface area for muscle attachment, aids body movements, houses cells, and stores minerals and lipids
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muscular
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components: skeletal muscle tissue functions: body movement, posture, produces heat
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nervous
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components: brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs(eyes and ears) functions: generates nerve impulses to regulate body, detects in body's internal and external environment and responds by causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions
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endocrine
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components: hormone producing; pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid/parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes. functions: regulates body activities by releasing hormones (chemical messengers)
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cardiovascular
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components; blood, heart, blood vessels. functions; heart pumps blood through blood vessels, blood components helps defend against disease and repair damages blood vessels. blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide and waste away from cells, helps regulate acid-base balance, temperature, water content of body fluids.
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lymphatic
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components; lymph fluid/vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and tonsils. functions; returns proteins/fluid to blood carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood, contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B/T cells that protect against disease causing microbes.
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respiratory
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components; lungs and air passage ways of; pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchial tubes. functions: transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air, helps regulate acid-base balance of body fluids, air flowing out of lungs through vocal chords produces sounds.
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digestive
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components; gastrointestinal tract including; mouth, pharynx(throat), esophagus(food tube), stomach, small/large intestines, anus functions; physical/chemical breakdown of food, absorbs nutrients, eliminates solid wastes.
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urinary
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components; kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra functions; produces-stores-eliminates urine, eliminates wastes and regulates volume and chemical composition of blood, maintains acid-base balance of blood, maintains mineral balance, helps regulate production of red blood cells.
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reproductive
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components; gonads(testes/ovaries), uterine(fallopian) tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, epididymis, ductus/vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, penis functions; gonads produce gametes, mammary glands produce milk
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homeostasis
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the condition of equilibrium in the body's internal environment, most often the nervous and endocrine systems act together to regulate homeostasis.
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Your best friend has decided to begin frying his breakfast eggs in margarine instead of butter because he has heard that eating butter is bad for his heart. Has he made a wise choice> Are there any alternatives?
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Neither butter or margarine is a particularly good choice for frying eggs. Butter contains saturated fats that are associated with heart disease. However, many margarines contain hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated trans-fatty acids that also increase the risk of heart disease. An alternative would be frying the eggs in any of the mono- or polyunsaturated fats such as olive/peanut/corn oil. Boiling or poaching the eggs instead of frying them would reduce the fat content of his breakfast, as would eating only the egg white.
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A 4-month old baby is admitted to the hospital with a temperature of 102F (38.9C). Why is it critical to treat the fever as quickly as possible?
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High body temperatures can be life-threatening, especially in infants. The increased temperature can cause denaturing of structural proteins and vital enzymes. When this happens, the proteins become nonfunctional. If the denatured enzymes are required for reactions that are necessary for life, the infant could die.
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During chemistry lab, Maria places sucrose (table sugar) in a glass beaker, adds water, and stirs. As the table sugar disappears, she loudly proclaims that she has chemically broken down the sucrose into fructose and glucose. Is Maria's chemical analysis correct?
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Simply adding water to the table sugar does not cause it to break apart into monosaccharides. The water acts as a solvent, dissolving the sucrose and forming a sugar-water solution. To complete the breakdown of table sugar to fructose and glucose would require the presence of the enzyme sucrose.
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Sam does not consume alcohol, while his brother Sebastian regularly drinks large quantities of alcohol. If we could examine the liver cells of these brothers, would we see a difference in smooth ER and peroxisomes?
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Since smooth ER inactivates or detoxifies drugs, and peroxisomes
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Marathon runners can become dehydrated due to the extreme physical activity. What types of fluids should they consume in order to rehydrate their cells?
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In order to restore water balance to the cells, the runners need to consume hypotonic solutions. The water in the hypotonic solution will move from the blood, into the interstitial fluid, then in to the cells. Plain water works well; sports drinks contain water and some electrolytes which may have been lost due to sweating but will still be hypotonic in relation to the body cells.
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What are the three principal parts of a cell?
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plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus
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Does insulin alter glucose transport by facilitated diffusion?
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Yes, insulin promotes insertion of glucose transporter (GluT) in the plasma membrane, which increases cellular glucose uptake by carrier mediated facilitated diffusion.
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Will a 2% solution of NaCl cause hemolysis or crenation of RBC's?
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A 2% solution of NaCl will cause crenation of RBCs because it is hypertonic.
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Anaplasia
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the loss of tissue differentiation and function that is characteristic of most malignancies
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Atrophy
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a decrease in the size of cells, with subsequent decrease in the size of the tissue or organ, wasting away.
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Dysplasia
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alteration in the size, shape, and organization of cells due to chronic irritation or inflammation; may progress to neoplasia (tumor formation, usually malignant) or revert to normal if the irritation is removed
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Hyperplasia
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increase in the number of cells of a tissue due to an increase in the frequency of cell division.
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Hypertrophy
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increase in the size of cells without cell division
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Metaplasia
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the transformation of one type of cell into another
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Progency
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offspring or descendants
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Proteomics
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the study of proteome (all of an organism's proteins) in order to identify all of the proteins produced; it involves determining the three-dimensional structures of proteins so that drugs can be designed to alter protein activity to help in the treatment and diagnosis of disease.
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Tumor marker
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a substance introduced into circulation by tumor cells that indicates the presence of a tumor, as well as the specific type. Tumor markers may be used to screen , diagnose, make a prognosis, evaluate a response to treatment, and monitor for recurrence of cancer.
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Free radicals
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free radicals produce oxidative damage in lipids, proteins, or nucleic acids by stealing an electron to accompany their unpaired electrons. Some effects are wrinkled skin, stiff joints, and hardened arteries. Normal metabolism-for example, aerobic cellular respiration in mitochondria-produces some free radicals. Others are present in air pollution, radiation, and certain foods we eat. Naturally occurring enzymes in peroxisomes and in the cytosol normally dispose of free radicals. Certain dietary substances, such as vitamin E,C, beta carotene, zinc, and selenium are referred to as antioxidants because they inhibit the formation of free radicals.
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medical uses of isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic solutions
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RBC's & other cells may be damaged/destroyed if exposed to hyper/hypo tonic solutions, most (IV) solutions are isotonic for this reason examples of isotonic solutions; saline(NaCl), D5W-dextrose 5% in water mannitol(sugar alcohol) is used to treat cerebral edema (excessive interstitial fluid in the brain hypotonic solutions can be given orally or by IV are used to treat dehydration by the solution moving from the blood into the interstitial fluid then into cells to rehydrate them
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mitotic spindle and cancer
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one of the distinguishing features of cancer cells in uncontrolled division, which result in the formation of a mass of cells called neoplasm or tumor. One of the ways to treat cancer is by chemotherapy, the use of anticancer drugs. Some of these drugs stop cell division by inhibiting the formation of the mitotic spindle. Unfortunately, these types of anticancer drugs also kill all types of rapid dividing cells in the body, causing side effects such as nausea, diarrhea, hair loss, fatigue, and decreased resistance to disease.
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recombinant DNA
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scientists have developed techniques for inserting genes from other organisms into a variety of host cells. Manipulating the cell in this way can cause the host organism to produce proteins it normally does not synthesize. Organisms so altered are called recombinants and their DNA a combination of DNA from different sources recombinant DNA. When recombinant DNA functions properly, the host will synthesize the protein specified by the new gene it has acquired. The technology that has arisen from the manipulation of genetic materials is referred to as genetic engineering. The practical applications are enormous, strains of recombinant bacteria produce many important therapeutic substances; HGH, insulin, interferon, erythropoietin.
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Genomics
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in the last decade research in the field of genomics, the study of the relationships between the genome and the biological functions of an organism has flourished. The Human Genome Project began in 1990 as an effort to sequence all of the nearly 3.2 billion nucleotides of our genome and was completed in 2003. Scientists now know the total number of genes in the human genome is about 30,000. Information regarding the human genome and how it is affected by the environment seeks to identify and discover the functions of the specific genes that play a role in genetic diseases. Genomic medicine also aims to design new drugs and to provide screening tests to enable physicians to provide more effective counseling and treatment for disorders with significant genetic components such as hypertension, obesity, diabetes, and cancer.
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Proteasomes and disease
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some diseases could result from failure of proteasomes to degrade abnormal proteins. For example, clumps of misfolded proteins accumulate in brain cells of people with Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Discovering why the proteasomes fail to clear these abnormal proteins is a goal of ongoing research.
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Tay-Sachs Disease
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some disorders are caused by faulty or absent lysosomal enzymes. For instance, Tay-Sachs disease which most often affects children of Ashkenazi decent, is an inherited condition characterized by the absence of a single lysosomal enzyme called Hex A. This enzyme normal breaks down a membrane glycolipid called ganglioside that is especially prevalent in nerve cells. As the excess ganglioside accumulates., the never cell function less efficiently. Children with Tay-Sachs disease typically experience seizures and muscle rigidity. They gradually become blind, demented, and uncoordinated and usually die before age 5. Test can now reveal whether an adult is a carrier for of the defective gene.
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Smooth Er and drug tolerance
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one of the functions of smooth ER, is to detoxify certain drugs. Individuals who repeatedly take such drugs, such as the sedative phenobarbital, develop changes in the smooth ER in their liver cells. Prolonged administration of phenobarbital results in increased tolerance to the drug, the same dose no longer produces the same degree of sedation. With repeated exposure to the drug, the amount of smooth ER and its enzymes increases to protect the cell from its toxic effects. AS the amount of smooth ER increases, higher and higher dosages of the drug are needed to achieve the original effect. This could result in an increased possibility of over-dose and increased drug dependence.
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Cilia and smoking
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the move of cilia is paralyzed by nicotine in cigarette smoke. For this reason, smokers cough often to remove foreign particles from their airways. Cells that line the uterine (fallopian) tubes also have cilia that sweep oocytes (egg cells) toward the uterus, and females who smoke have an increased risk of ectopic (outside the uterus) pregnancy.
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Phagocytosis and Microbes
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phagocytosis is a vital defense mechanism that helps protect the body from disease. Macrophages dispose of invading microbes and billions of aged, worn out RBC's every day; neutriphils also help rid the body of invading microbes. Pus is a mixture of dead neutrophils, macrophages, and tissue cells and fluid in an infected wound.
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Viruses and Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
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although receptor-mediated endocytosis normally imports needed materials, some viruses are able to use this mechanism to enter and infect the body cells. For example, the human immunodeficiency virus, which causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (aids) can attach to a receptor called CD4. This receptor is present in the plasma membrane of white blood cells called helper T cells. After binding to CD4, HIV enters the helper T cells via receptor mediated endocytosis.
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Digitalis Increases Ca^2+ in Heart Muscle Cells
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digitalis often is given to patients with heart failure, a condition of weakened pumping action by the heart. Digitalis exerts its effects by slowing the action of the sodium-potassium pumps, which lets more Na+ accumulate inside heart muscle cells. The result is a decreased Na+ concentration gradient across the plasma membrane, which causes the Na+-Ca^2+ antiporters to slow down. As a result, more Ca^2+ remains inside heart muscle cells. The slight increase in the level of Ca^2+ in the cytosol of heart muscle cells increases the force of their contractions and thus strengthens the force of the heartbeat.
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cancer
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a group diseases characterized by uncontrolled or abnormal cell division
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tumor/neoplasm
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when cells in a part of the body divide without control
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oncology
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the study of tumors
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malignant tumor
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a cancerous neoplasm
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metastasis
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the spread of cancerous cells to other parts of the body
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benign tumor
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a neoplasm that does not metastasize
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carcinomas
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malignant tumors that arise from epithelial cells
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melanomas
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cancerous growths of melanocytes
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sarcoma
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any cancer arising from muscle cells
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leukemia
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cancer of blood forming organs
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osteogenic sarcoma
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the most frequent type of childhood cancer, destroys normal bone tissue
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lymphoma
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a malignant disease of lymphatic tissue
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angiogenesis
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the growth of new network of blood vessels
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carcinogen
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a chemical agent or radiation that causes cancer
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mutations
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permanent changes in DNA base sequence of a gene
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oncogenes
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cancer causing genes
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proto-oncogenes
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normal genes that regulate growth and development
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oncogenic viruses
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cause cancer by stimulating abnormal proliferation of cells
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carcinogenesis
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a multi step process of cancer development
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what are some key differences in function among the four tissue types?
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epithelial tissue covers the body, lines various structures, and forms glands. Connective tissue protects, supports, binds organs together, stores energy, and helps provide immunity. Muscular tissue contracts and generates force and heat. Nervous tissue detects changes in the environment and generates nerve impulses that activate muscular contraction and glandular secretion.
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What is the function of fibroblasts?
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fibroblasts secrete fibers and ground substance of extracellular matrix.
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You are entering a cutest baby contest and asked your colleagues to help you choose the most adorable picture of yourself as a baby. One of your colleagues rudely points out that you were quite a chubby as an infant. You, however, are not offended. Explain to your colleagues the benefit of baby fat.
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infants tend to have a high proportion of brown fat, which contains many mitochondria and is highly vascularized. When broken down, brown fat produces heat that helps to maintain infants' body temperatures. This heat can also warm the blood, which then distributes the heat throughout the body.
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You've been on a bread and water diet for 3 weeks and have noticed that a cut on your shin won't heal and bleeds easily, why?
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your bread and water diet is not providing you with the necessary nutrients to encourage tissue repair. You need proper amounts of many essential vitamins especially vitamin C which is require for repair of the matrix and blood vessels. Vitamin A is needed to help properly maintain epithelial tissue.
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Tissue rejection
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an immune response of the body directed at foreign proteins in a transplanted tissue or organ; immunosuppressive drugs, such as cyclosporine, have largely overcome tissue rejection in heart, kidney, and liver transplant patients.
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Tissue transplantation
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the replacement of a diseased or injured tissue or organ. The most successful transplants involve use of a person's own tissue or those from an identical twin.
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Xenotransplantation
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the replacement of a diseased or injured tissue or organ with cells or tissues from an animal. Porcine (from pigs) and bovine (from cows) heart valves are used for some heart-valve replacement surgeries.
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auto-immune disease
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diseases in which antibodies produced by the immune system fail to distinguish what is foreign from what is self and attack the bodies own tissues.
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skin grafts
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new skin cannot regenerate if an injury destroys a large area of the stratum basale and its stem cells. Skin wounds of this magnitude require grafts in order to heal. A skin graft is the transfer of a patch of healthy skin taken from a donor site to cover a wound. A skin graft is performed to protect against fluid loss and infection, to promote tissue healing, to reduce scar formation, to prevent loss of function, and for cosmetic reasons. To avoid tissue rejection, the transplanted skin is usually taken from the same individual (autograft) or identical twin (isograft). If skin damage is so extensive that an autograft would cause harm, a self-donation procedure, performed most often for severely burned patients, small amounts of a individuals epidermis is removed, and the keratinocytes are cultured in the laboratory to produce thin sheets of skin. The new skin is transplanted back to the patient so that it covers the burn wound and generates a permanent skin. Also available as skin grafts for wound coverage are products grown in laboratory from the foreskins of circumcised infants.
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Psoriasis
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Psoriasis is a common and chronic skin disorder in which keratinocytes divide and move more quickly than normal from the stratum basale to the stratum corneum. They are shed prematurely in as little as 7-10 days. The immature keratinocytes make an abnormal keratin, which forms flaky, silvery scales at the skin surface, most often on the knees, elbows, and scalp (dandruff). Effective treatments-various topical ointments and ultraviolet phototherapy-suppress cell division, decrease the rate of cell growth, or inhibit keratinization.
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Stretch marks
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because of the collagenous, vascular structure of the dermis, striae or stretch marks a form of internal scarring, can result from the internal damage to this layer that occurs when the skin is stretched too much. When the skin is overstretched, the lateral bonding between adjacent collagen fibers is disrupted and small dermal blood vessels rupture. This is why stretch marks initially appear as reddish streaks at these sites. Later, after scar tissue ( which is poorly vascularized) forms at these sites of dermal breakdown, the stretch marks appear as silvery white streaks. Stretch marks often occur in the abdominal skin during pregnancy, on the skin of weight lifters where the skin is stretched by rapid increase in muscle mass , and in the stretched skin accompanying gross obesity.
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Albinism and Vitiligo
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albinism is the inherited inability to produce melanin. Most albinos have melanocytes that are unable to synthesize tyrosinase. Melanin is missing from their hair, eyes, and skin. This results with problems in vision and a tendency of the skin to burn easily on overexposure to sunlight. In another condition called vitiligo the partial or complete loss of melanocytes may be related to an immune system malfunction in which antibodies attack the melanocytes.
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Skin color as a diagnostic clue
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the color of the skin and mucous membranes can provide clues for diagnosing certain conditions. When blood is not picking up an adequate amount of oxygen from the lungs, as in someone who has stopped breathing, the mucous membranes, nail beds, and skin appear bluish or cyanotic. Jaundice is due to a buildup of yellow pigment bilirubin in the skin. This condition gives a yellowish appearance to the skin and whites of the eyes, and usually indicates liver disease. Erythema, redness of the skin, is caused by engorgement of capillaries in the dermis with blood due to skin injury, exposure to heat, infection, inflammation, or allergic reactions. Pallo, or paleness of the skin, may occur in conditions such as shock or anemia. All skin color changes are observed most readily in people with light colored skin. In people with dark color skin , gums, and nail beds can provide some information about circulation.
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Chemotherapy and hair loss
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in the treatment of disease, usually cancer, by means of chemical substances or drugs. Chemotherapeutic agents interrupt the life cycle of rapidly dividing cancer cells. Unfortunately, the drugs also affect other rapidly dividing cells in the body, such as hair matrix cells. It is for this reason that individual's undergoing chemotherapy experience hair loss. Since about 15% of the hair matrix cells of scalp hairs are in the resting stage, these cells are not affected by chemotherapy. Once chemotherapy is topped, the hair matrix cells replace lost hair follicles and hair regrowth resumes.
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Acne
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during childhood, sebaceous glands are relatively small and inactive. At puberty, androgens from the testes and ovaries and adrenal glands stimulate sebaceous glands to grow in size and increase their production of sebum. Acne is an inflammation of sebaceous glands that usually begins at puberty, when the sebaceous glands are stimulated by androgens. Acne occurs predominantly in sebaceous follicles that have been colonized by bacteria, some of which thrive in the lipid rich sebum. The infection may cause a cyst or sac of connective tissue cells to form, which can destroy and displace epidermal cells. This condition, called cystic acne, can prematurely scar the epidermis. Treatment consists of gently washing the affected areas once or twice a day with mild soap, topical antibiotics such as (clindamycin and erythromycin), topical drugs (tetracycline, minocycline, erythromycin, and isotrentinoin). Contrary to popular belief foods such as chocolate or fried foods do not cause or worsen acne.
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Impacted Cerumen
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some people produce an abnormally large amount of cerumen in the external auditory canal. If it accumulates until it becomes impacted, sounds waves may be prevented from reaching the eardrum. Treatments for impacted cerumen include periodic ear irrigation with enzymes to dissolve the wax and removal of wax with a blunt instrument. The use of cotton swabs or sharp instruments is not recommended for this purpose because they may push the cerumen further into the external auditory canal and damage the ear drum.
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What types of tissues make up the epidermis and dermis?
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the epidermis is composed of epithelial tissue; the dermis is made up of connective tissue
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What is the function of melanin?
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melanin protects DNA of keratinocytes from the damaging effects of UV light.
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Why does it hurt when you pluck out a hair but not when you get a haircut?
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plucking hair stimulates root hair plexuses in the dermis, some of which are sensitive to pain. Because cells of a hair shaft are already dead and the hair shaft lacks nerves, cutting hair is not painful.
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Why are nails so hard?
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nails are hard because they are composed of tightly packed, hard, keratinized epidermal cells.
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The amount of dust that collects in a house with an assortment of dogs, cats and people is truly amazing. A lot of these dust particles had a previous life as part of the homes living occupants. Where did the dust originate on the human body?
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the dust particle are primarily keratinocytes shed from the stratum corneum of the skin.
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Josie reassures her mother that the tattoo she received at the tattoo parlor will eventually disappear. She knows this because she has learned in biology class that skin cells are shed every 4 weeks, is Josie correct?
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tattoos are created by depositing ink into the dermis, which does not undergo shedding as the epidermis does. Although the tattoo will fade due to exposure to sunlight and the flushing away of ink particles by the lymphatic system, the tattoo is permanent.
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Six months ago Chef Eduardo sliced through the end of his right thumb nail. Although the surrounding nail grows normally, this part of his nail remains split and doesn't seem to want to heal. What has happened to cause this?
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Eduardo has damaged his nail matrix, the part of the nail that produces growth. Because the damaged area has not regrown properly, the nail matrix may be permanently damaged.
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Abrasion
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an area where skin has been scraped away
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Blister
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a collection of serous fluid within the epidermis or between epidermis/dermis
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Callus
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an area of hardened thickened skin usually in the palms and soles due to persistent pressure and friction.
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Cold sore/ fever blister
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a lesion usually in the oral mucous membrane caused by type 1 herpes simplex virus, the virus remains dormant until triggered by; UV light, hormones or stress
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Comedo/blackhead
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a collection of sebaceous material and dead cells in the hair follicle and excretory duct of the sebaceous (oil) gland. Usually found over face, chest ,back during adolescence
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Contact dermatitis
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inflammation of the skin caused by exposure to chemicals that bring about an allergic reaction, such as poison ivy toxins.
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Contusion
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tissue deep to the skin is damaged but epidermis is not broken
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Corn
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a painful conical thickening of the stratum coreum of the epidermis found over toe joints caused by friction or pressure.
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Cyst
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a sac with a distinct connective tissue wall, containing a fluid.
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Eczema
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inflammation of the skin, occurs mostly in skin creases, typically begins in infancy and can be outgrown, cause is unknown.
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Frostbite
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local destruction of skin and subcutaneous tissue on exposed surfaces as a result of extreme cold, in mild cases skin appears blue, swollen with slight pain, severe cases include considerable selling, no pain, some bleeding, and blistering, frostbite is treated by rewarming
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Hemangioma
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localized benign tumor of the skin and subcutaneous layer that result from abnormal increase in blood vessels. Portwine stain; a flat, pink/red, or purple lesion present at birth.
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Keloid
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an elevated irregular darkened area of scar tissue caused by collagen formation during healing. It occurs in the dermis and subcutaneous tissue usually after trauma, surgery, burn, severe acne; more common in African descent.
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Laceration
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irregular tear in skin
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Lice
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contagious arthropods of 2 types; head lice-tiny, jumping arthropods that suck blood from the scalp they lay eggs called nits, their saliva causes itching. Pubic lice-tiny arthrpods that do not jump, they look like miniature crabs
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Papule
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small round skin elevation, ie; pimple
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Pruritus
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itching, one of the most common dermatological disorders, may be caused by skin disorders, infection, cancer, kidney failure stress, allergic reactions
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Tinea corporis/ringworm
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fungal infection characterized by scaling, itching, and sometimes painful lesions that may appear anywhere on the body
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Wart
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mass produced b y uncontrolled growth of epithelial skin cells, caused by a papillomavirous, most warts are non-cancerous.
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Biopsy
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the removal of a sample of living tissue for microscopic examination. This procedure is used to help diagnose many disorders, especially cancer, and to discover the cause of unexplained infections and inflammations. Both normal and potentially diseased tissues are removed for purposes of comparison. Once the tissue sample are removed, either surgically or through a needle and syringe, they may be preserved, stained to highlight special properties, or cut into thin sections for microscopic observation. Sometimes a biopsy is conducted while the patient is anesthetized during surgery to help a physician determine the most appropriate treatment. For example, if a biopsy of thyroid tissue reveals malignant cells, the surgeon can proceed immediately with the most appropriate procedure.
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Papanicolaou
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also called a pap test or pap smear involves collection and microscopic examination of epithelial cells that have been scraped off the apical layer of tissue. A very common type of pap test involves examining the cells from the non keratinized stratified squamous epithelium of the vagina and cervix of the uterus. This type of pap test is performed mainly to detect early changes in the cells of the female reproductive system that may indicate a precancerous condition or cancer. In performing a Pap smear, the cells are scraped from the tissue and then smeared on a microscopic slide and sent to a lab for analysis. Pap test should be performed every 3 beginning at 21, females 30-65 should have pap and HPV (human pappilomavirus) every 5 years
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Chondroitin Sulfate, Glucosamine, and Joint Disease
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chondroitin sulfate and glucosamine have been used as nutritional supplements either alone or in combination to promote and maintain the structure and function of joint cartilage, to provide pain relief from osteoarthritis, and to reduce joint inflammation. Although these supplements have benefited some with moderate to severe arthritis the benefit is minimal in lesser cases.
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Tissue Engineering
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tissue engineering is a technology that combine synthetic material with cells and has allowed to grow new tissues in the lab to replace damaged tissues in the body. Tissue engineers have already developed lab-grown versions of skin and cartilage using scaffolding beds of biodegradable synthetic materials or collagen as substrates that permit body cells to be cultured. As the cells divide and assemble, the scaffolding degrades; the new permanent tissue is then implanted in the patient. Other structured currently under development; bones, tendons, heart valves, bone marrow, intestines.
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Adhesions
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scar tissue can form adhesions-abnormal joining of tissues. Adhesions commonly form in the abdomen around a previous site of inflammation such as an inflamed appendix, and they can develop after surgery. Adhesions do not always cause problems, they can decrease flexibility, cause obstruction, and make a subsequent operation more difficult. In rare cases adhesions can cause infertility. An adhesiotomy, the surgical release of adhesions may be required.
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Systemic lupus erythematosus
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lupus is a chronic inflammatory disease of connective tissue occurring mostly in nonwhite women during their childbearing years. Genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors contribute to lupus.
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4 basic types of tissues
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epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous
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cell junctions
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points of contact between adjacent plasma membranes
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tight junctions form fluid tight seals between cells
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adherens junction, desmosomes, and hemidesmosomes anchor cells to the basement membrane
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epithelial tissue
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many cells tightly packed together and is avascular, but has nerve supply, the high rate of cell division gives epithelial tissue a high capacity for renewal
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connective tissue
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relatively few cells with lots of extracellular material
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subtypes of epithelial tissue
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lining epithelium, glandular epithelium
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surfaces of epithelial cells modified to carry out specific functions
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apical, lateral, and basal
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epithelial layers
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simple, stratified, or pseutostratified
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epithelial cell shapes
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squamous (flat) cuboidal ( cube like) columnar (rectangular) transitional (variable)
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simple squamous epithelium
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single layer of flat cells that resemble a tile floor LOCATION: cardiovascular and lymphatic systems FUNCTION: present at sites of filtration (blood filtration in kidneys) or diffusion ( diffusion of oxygen in blood vessels of lungs) not found in areas of mechanical stress
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endothelium
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lines the heart and blood vessels
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mesothelium
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forms the serous membranes that line the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and covers organs within them
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simple cuboidal epithelium
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single layer of cubed shaped cells that LOCATION: in; ovaries, kidneys, eyes, and lining some glandular ducts FUNCTION: in secretion and absorption,
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Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium
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single layer of nonciliated rectangular cells LOCATION: lines gastrointestinal tract, and gallbladder FUNCTION: secretion and absorption, mucous lubricates linings of digestive, respiratory, reproductive, urinary tracts, protects stomach lining from acidic juice excreted by stomach.
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ciliated simple columnar epithelium
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single layer of ciliated column like cells LOCATION: lines some bronchials of respiratory, uterine, paranasal, central canal of spinal cord, and ventricle of brain FUNCTION: cilia move mucous and foreign particles toward throat
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Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
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has several layers LOCATION: ciliated version is found in airways, nonciliated in glands, epididymis, male urethra FUNCTION: secretes mucous that traps foreign particles
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Stratified squamous epithelium
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two or more layers LOCATION: keratinized variety in superficiallayer of skin, nonkeritanized lines wet surfaces FUNCTION: protection against abrasion, water loss, UV rays
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stratified cuboidal epithelium
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two or more layers apical layer is cube shaped LOCATION: sweat/esophageal glands, male urethra FUNCTION: protection, limited secretion and absorption
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Stratified columnar epithelium
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basal layer consists of shortened, irregularly shaped cells; apical layer has columnar cells LOCATION: urethra, excretory ducts of some glands FUNCTION: protection and secretion
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Transitional epithelium
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variable appearance LOCATION: urinary bladder, ureters FUNCTION: allows urinary organs to stretch
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