question

which level of structural organization is composed of two or more different types of tissues that work together to perform a specific function?

answer

organs are composed of two or more different types of tissues that work together to perform a specific function

question

what is the main difference between negative and positive feedback systems?

answer

the difference between a negative and positive feedback system is that in negative feedback systems the response reverses the original stimulus, but in positive feedback systems the response enhances the original stimulus.

question

what is the usefulness of defining one standard anatomical position?

answer

having one standard position allows directional terms to be clearly defined so that any body part can be described in relation to any other part.

question

which plane divides the heart into anterior and posterior portions?

answer

the frontal plane divides the heart into anterior and posterior portions

question

there is much interest in using stem cells to help in the treatment of diseases such as type 1 diabetes, which is due to a malfunction of some of the normal cells in the pancreas. What would make stem cells useful in disease treatment?

answer

stem cells are undifferentiated cells, research using stem cells has shown that these undifferentiated cells may be promoted to differentiate into the specific cells needed to replace those which are damaged or malfunctioning.

question

noninvasive diagnostic techniques

answer

observation, palpation, auscultation, percussion

question

autopsy

answer

postmortem exam of the body and and dissection of its internal organs,may be useful in resolving disputes between beneficiaries and insurance companies

question

diagnosis

answer

science and skill of distinguishing one disorder from another, the patients symptoms and signs,medical history,physical exam,and lab tests provide the basis for making a diagnosis

question

free radicals and antioxidants

answer

there are several sources of free radicals; exposure to ultraviolet sunlight, exposure to x-rays, and some that occur during normal metabolic processes,(carbon tetrachloride) used in dry cleaning gives rise to free radicals when it participates with metabolic reactions in the body. disorders/diseases/conditions linked to oxygen-derived free radicals; cancer, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's, emphysema, diabetes, cataracts, macular degeneration, rheumatoid arthritis, and general deterioration with aging. important dietary antioxidants;selenium, zinc, beta-carotene, vitamins C/E, red/blue/purple fruits, are thought to slow the pace of damage

question

artificial sweeteners

answer

aspartame(NutraSweet/Equal), 200 times sweeter than sucrose, adds virtually no calories to diet because it is used in small amounts saccharin(sweet 'n low) 400 times sweeter than sucrose, zero calories, passes through the body un-metabolized sucralose(splenda) 600 times sweeter than sucrose, passes through the body un-metabolized artificial sweeteners do not cause tooth decay

question

fatty acids and health and disease

answer

a group of fatty acids call essential fatty acids(EFAs) are essential to human health, cannot be made by the body and therefore must obtained from foods/supplements omega 3/6 and cis-fatty acid are among the more important fatty acids omega 3/6, promote health by protecting against heart disease/stroke/bone loss/arthritis/skin disorders/mental functions sources of omega 3; flaxseed, fatty fish, oils with large amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids, fish oils, walnuts sources of omega 6; most processed foods, eggs, baked goods, oils with large amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids, meats especially organ meats cis-fatty acids are beneficial until heated when they change to trans-fatty acid, the risk including in trans-fatty acids that increase triglycerides; heart/cardiovascular disease

question

Embryology

answer

the first 8 weeks of development after fertilization of a human egg

question

Developmental biology

answer

The complete development of an individual from fertilization to death

question

Cell biology

answer

cellular structure and function

question

Histology

answer

microscopic structure of tissues

question

Gross anatomy

answer

structures that can be examined without a microscope

question

Systemic anatomy

answer

structures of specific systems of the body such as nervous and respiratory

question

Regional anatomy

answer

specific regions of the body such as head or chest

question

Surface anatomy

answer

surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy through visualization and palpation

question

Imaging anatomy

answer

body structures that can be visualized with techniques such as x-rays,MRI, and CT scans

question

Pathological anatomy

answer

structural changes associated with disease

question

Neurophysiology

answer

functional properties of nerve cells

question

Endocrinology

answer

hormones(chemical regulators in the blood) and how they control body functions

question

Cardiovascular physiology

answer

functions of the heart and blood vessels

question

Immunology

answer

the body's defense against disease-causing agents

question

Respiratory physiology

answer

functions of the air passage way and lungs

question

Renal physiology

answer

functions of the kidneys

question

Exercise physiology

answer

changes in cell and organ functions due to muscular activity

question

Pathophysiology

answer

functional changes associated with disease and aging

question

Superior

answer

toward the head or the upper part of a structure

question

Inferior

answer

away from the head or lower part of a structure

question

nearer to or at the front of the body

question

Posterior

answer

nearer to or at the back of the body

question

Medial

answer

nearer to the midline

question

Lateral

answer

farther from the midline

question

Intermediate

answer

between two structures

question

ipsilateral

answer

on the same side of the body as another structure

question

contralateral

answer

on the opposite side of the body

question

proximal

answer

nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk, nearer to the origination of a structure

question

distal

answer

farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk, farther from the origination of a structure

question

deep

answer

away from the surface of the body

question

superficial

answer

toward or on the surface of the body

question

anatomy

answer

the science and the relationships among structures

question

physiology

answer

the science of body functions

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dissection

answer

the careful cutting apart of body structures to study their relationships

question

six levels of structural organization in the body

answer

chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, and organismal

question

cells

answer

basic structural and functional living units of an organism and are the smallest living units in the human body

question

tissues

answer

groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function

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organs

answer

two or more different types of tissues, have specific functions and usually a recognizable shape

question

systems

answer

related organs that have a common function

question

organism

answer

any living individual

question

11 systems of the human organism

answer

...

question

integumentary

answer

components: skin, hair, finger/toe nails, oil/sweat glands functions: protection, insulation, stores fat, temperature regulation, eliminates wastes, helps make vitamin D, sensations; warm, cold, pain

question

skeletal

answer

components: bones, joints, cartilage functions: supports and protects body, provides surface area for muscle attachment, aids body movements, houses cells, and stores minerals and lipids

question

muscular

answer

components: skeletal muscle tissue functions: body movement, posture, produces heat

question

nervous

answer

components: brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs(eyes and ears) functions: generates nerve impulses to regulate body, detects in body's internal and external environment and responds by causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions

question

endocrine

answer

components: hormone producing; pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid/parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes. functions: regulates body activities by releasing hormones (chemical messengers)

question

cardiovascular

answer

components; blood, heart, blood vessels. functions; heart pumps blood through blood vessels, blood components helps defend against disease and repair damages blood vessels. blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide and waste away from cells, helps regulate acid-base balance, temperature, water content of body fluids.

question

lymphatic

answer

components; lymph fluid/vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and tonsils. functions; returns proteins/fluid to blood carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood, contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B/T cells that protect against disease causing microbes.

question

respiratory

answer

components; lungs and air passage ways of; pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchial tubes. functions: transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air, helps regulate acid-base balance of body fluids, air flowing out of lungs through vocal chords produces sounds.

question

digestive

answer

components; gastrointestinal tract including; mouth, pharynx(throat), esophagus(food tube), stomach, small/large intestines, anus functions; physical/chemical breakdown of food, absorbs nutrients, eliminates solid wastes.

question

urinary

answer

components; kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra functions; produces-stores-eliminates urine, eliminates wastes and regulates volume and chemical composition of blood, maintains acid-base balance of blood, maintains mineral balance, helps regulate production of red blood cells.

question

reproductive

answer

components; gonads(testes/ovaries), uterine(fallopian) tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, epididymis, ductus/vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, penis functions; gonads produce gametes, mammary glands produce milk

question

homeostasis

answer

the condition of equilibrium in the body's internal environment, most often the nervous and endocrine systems act together to regulate homeostasis.

question

Your best friend has decided to begin frying his breakfast eggs in margarine instead of butter because he has heard that eating butter is bad for his heart. Has he made a wise choice> Are there any alternatives?

answer

Neither butter or margarine is a particularly good choice for frying eggs. Butter contains saturated fats that are associated with heart disease. However, many margarines contain hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated trans-fatty acids that also increase the risk of heart disease. An alternative would be frying the eggs in any of the mono- or polyunsaturated fats such as olive/peanut/corn oil. Boiling or poaching the eggs instead of frying them would reduce the fat content of his breakfast, as would eating only the egg white.

question

A 4-month old baby is admitted to the hospital with a temperature of 102F (38.9C). Why is it critical to treat the fever as quickly as possible?

answer

High body temperatures can be life-threatening, especially in infants. The increased temperature can cause denaturing of structural proteins and vital enzymes. When this happens, the proteins become nonfunctional. If the denatured enzymes are required for reactions that are necessary for life, the infant could die.

question

During chemistry lab, Maria places sucrose (table sugar) in a glass beaker, adds water, and stirs. As the table sugar disappears, she loudly proclaims that she has chemically broken down the sucrose into fructose and glucose. Is Maria's chemical analysis correct?

answer

Simply adding water to the table sugar does not cause it to break apart into monosaccharides. The water acts as a solvent, dissolving the sucrose and forming a sugar-water solution. To complete the breakdown of table sugar to fructose and glucose would require the presence of the enzyme sucrose.

question

Sam does not consume alcohol, while his brother Sebastian regularly drinks large quantities of alcohol. If we could examine the liver cells of these brothers, would we see a difference in smooth ER and peroxisomes?

answer

Since smooth ER inactivates or detoxifies drugs, and peroxisomes

question

Marathon runners can become dehydrated due to the extreme physical activity. What types of fluids should they consume in order to rehydrate their cells?

answer

In order to restore water balance to the cells, the runners need to consume hypotonic solutions. The water in the hypotonic solution will move from the blood, into the interstitial fluid, then in to the cells. Plain water works well; sports drinks contain water and some electrolytes which may have been lost due to sweating but will still be hypotonic in relation to the body cells.

question

What are the three principal parts of a cell?

answer

plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus

question

Does insulin alter glucose transport by facilitated diffusion?

answer

Yes, insulin promotes insertion of glucose transporter (GluT) in the plasma membrane, which increases cellular glucose uptake by carrier mediated facilitated diffusion.

question

Will a 2% solution of NaCl cause hemolysis or crenation of RBC's?

answer

A 2% solution of NaCl will cause crenation of RBCs because it is hypertonic.

question

Anaplasia

answer

the loss of tissue differentiation and function that is characteristic of most malignancies

question

Atrophy

answer

a decrease in the size of cells, with subsequent decrease in the size of the tissue or organ, wasting away.

question

Dysplasia

answer

alteration in the size, shape, and organization of cells due to chronic irritation or inflammation; may progress to neoplasia (tumor formation, usually malignant) or revert to normal if the irritation is removed

question

Hyperplasia

answer

increase in the number of cells of a tissue due to an increase in the frequency of cell division.

question

Hypertrophy

answer

increase in the size of cells without cell division

question

Metaplasia

answer

the transformation of one type of cell into another

question

Progency

answer

offspring or descendants

question

Proteomics

answer

the study of proteome (all of an organism's proteins) in order to identify all of the proteins produced; it involves determining the three-dimensional structures of proteins so that drugs can be designed to alter protein activity to help in the treatment and diagnosis of disease.

question

Tumor marker

answer

a substance introduced into circulation by tumor cells that indicates the presence of a tumor, as well as the specific type. Tumor markers may be used to screen , diagnose, make a prognosis, evaluate a response to treatment, and monitor for recurrence of cancer.

question

Free radicals

answer

free radicals produce oxidative damage in lipids, proteins, or nucleic acids by stealing an electron to accompany their unpaired electrons. Some effects are wrinkled skin, stiff joints, and hardened arteries. Normal metabolism-for example, aerobic cellular respiration in mitochondria-produces some free radicals. Others are present in air pollution, radiation, and certain foods we eat. Naturally occurring enzymes in peroxisomes and in the cytosol normally dispose of free radicals. Certain dietary substances, such as vitamin E,C, beta carotene, zinc, and selenium are referred to as antioxidants because they inhibit the formation of free radicals.

question

medical uses of isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic solutions

answer

RBC's & other cells may be damaged/destroyed if exposed to hyper/hypo tonic solutions, most (IV) solutions are isotonic for this reason examples of isotonic solutions; saline(NaCl), D5W-dextrose 5% in water mannitol(sugar alcohol) is used to treat cerebral edema (excessive interstitial fluid in the brain hypotonic solutions can be given orally or by IV are used to treat dehydration by the solution moving from the blood into the interstitial fluid then into cells to rehydrate them

question

mitotic spindle and cancer

answer

one of the distinguishing features of cancer cells in uncontrolled division, which result in the formation of a mass of cells called neoplasm or tumor. One of the ways to treat cancer is by chemotherapy, the use of anticancer drugs. Some of these drugs stop cell division by inhibiting the formation of the mitotic spindle. Unfortunately, these types of anticancer drugs also kill all types of rapid dividing cells in the body, causing side effects such as nausea, diarrhea, hair loss, fatigue, and decreased resistance to disease.

question

recombinant DNA

answer

scientists have developed techniques for inserting genes from other organisms into a variety of host cells. Manipulating the cell in this way can cause the host organism to produce proteins it normally does not synthesize. Organisms so altered are called recombinants and their DNA a combination of DNA from different sources recombinant DNA. When recombinant DNA functions properly, the host will synthesize the protein specified by the new gene it has acquired. The technology that has arisen from the manipulation of genetic materials is referred to as genetic engineering. The practical applications are enormous, strains of recombinant bacteria produce many important therapeutic substances; HGH, insulin, interferon, erythropoietin.

question

Genomics

answer

in the last decade research in the field of genomics, the study of the relationships between the genome and the biological functions of an organism has flourished. The Human Genome Project began in 1990 as an effort to sequence all of the nearly 3.2 billion nucleotides of our genome and was completed in 2003. Scientists now know the total number of genes in the human genome is about 30,000. Information regarding the human genome and how it is affected by the environment seeks to identify and discover the functions of the specific genes that play a role in genetic diseases. Genomic medicine also aims to design new drugs and to provide screening tests to enable physicians to provide more effective counseling and treatment for disorders with significant genetic components such as hypertension, obesity, diabetes, and cancer.

question

Proteasomes and disease

answer

some diseases could result from failure of proteasomes to degrade abnormal proteins. For example, clumps of misfolded proteins accumulate in brain cells of people with Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Discovering why the proteasomes fail to clear these abnormal proteins is a goal of ongoing research.

question

Tay-Sachs Disease

answer

some disorders are caused by faulty or absent lysosomal enzymes. For instance, Tay-Sachs disease which most often affects children of Ashkenazi decent, is an inherited condition characterized by the absence of a single lysosomal enzyme called Hex A. This enzyme normal breaks down a membrane glycolipid called ganglioside that is especially prevalent in nerve cells. As the excess ganglioside accumulates., the never cell function less efficiently. Children with Tay-Sachs disease typically experience seizures and muscle rigidity. They gradually become blind, demented, and uncoordinated and usually die before age 5. Test can now reveal whether an adult is a carrier for of the defective gene.

question

Smooth Er and drug tolerance

answer

one of the functions of smooth ER, is to detoxify certain drugs. Individuals who repeatedly take such drugs, such as the sedative phenobarbital, develop changes in the smooth ER in their liver cells. Prolonged administration of phenobarbital results in increased tolerance to the drug, the same dose no longer produces the same degree of sedation. With repeated exposure to the drug, the amount of smooth ER and its enzymes increases to protect the cell from its toxic effects. AS the amount of smooth ER increases, higher and higher dosages of the drug are needed to achieve the original effect. This could result in an increased possibility of over-dose and increased drug dependence.

question

Cilia and smoking

answer

the move of cilia is paralyzed by nicotine in cigarette smoke. For this reason, smokers cough often to remove foreign particles from their airways. Cells that line the uterine (fallopian) tubes also have cilia that sweep oocytes (egg cells) toward the uterus, and females who smoke have an increased risk of ectopic (outside the uterus) pregnancy.

question

Phagocytosis and Microbes

answer

phagocytosis is a vital defense mechanism that helps protect the body from disease. Macrophages dispose of invading microbes and billions of aged, worn out RBC's every day; neutriphils also help rid the body of invading microbes. Pus is a mixture of dead neutrophils, macrophages, and tissue cells and fluid in an infected wound.

question

Viruses and Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

answer

although receptor-mediated endocytosis normally imports needed materials, some viruses are able to use this mechanism to enter and infect the body cells. For example, the human immunodeficiency virus, which causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (aids) can attach to a receptor called CD4. This receptor is present in the plasma membrane of white blood cells called helper T cells. After binding to CD4, HIV enters the helper T cells via receptor mediated endocytosis.

question

Digitalis Increases Ca^2+ in Heart Muscle Cells

answer

digitalis often is given to patients with heart failure, a condition of weakened pumping action by the heart. Digitalis exerts its effects by slowing the action of the sodium-potassium pumps, which lets more Na+ accumulate inside heart muscle cells. The result is a decreased Na+ concentration gradient across the plasma membrane, which causes the Na+-Ca^2+ antiporters to slow down. As a result, more Ca^2+ remains inside heart muscle cells. The slight increase in the level of Ca^2+ in the cytosol of heart muscle cells increases the force of their contractions and thus strengthens the force of the heartbeat.

question

cancer

answer

a group diseases characterized by uncontrolled or abnormal cell division

question

tumor/neoplasm

answer

when cells in a part of the body divide without control

question

oncology

answer

the study of tumors

question

malignant tumor

answer

a cancerous neoplasm

question

metastasis

answer

the spread of cancerous cells to other parts of the body

question

benign tumor

answer

a neoplasm that does not metastasize

question

carcinomas

answer

malignant tumors that arise from epithelial cells

question

melanomas

answer

cancerous growths of melanocytes

question

sarcoma

answer

any cancer arising from muscle cells

question

leukemia

answer

cancer of blood forming organs

question

osteogenic sarcoma

answer

the most frequent type of childhood cancer, destroys normal bone tissue

question

lymphoma

answer

a malignant disease of lymphatic tissue

question

angiogenesis

answer

the growth of new network of blood vessels

question

carcinogen

answer

a chemical agent or radiation that causes cancer

question

mutations

answer

permanent changes in DNA base sequence of a gene

question

oncogenes

answer

cancer causing genes

question

proto-oncogenes

answer

normal genes that regulate growth and development

question

oncogenic viruses

answer

cause cancer by stimulating abnormal proliferation of cells

question

carcinogenesis

answer

a multi step process of cancer development

question

what are some key differences in function among the four tissue types?

answer

epithelial tissue covers the body, lines various structures, and forms glands. Connective tissue protects, supports, binds organs together, stores energy, and helps provide immunity. Muscular tissue contracts and generates force and heat. Nervous tissue detects changes in the environment and generates nerve impulses that activate muscular contraction and glandular secretion.

question

What is the function of fibroblasts?

answer

fibroblasts secrete fibers and ground substance of extracellular matrix.

question

You are entering a cutest baby contest and asked your colleagues to help you choose the most adorable picture of yourself as a baby. One of your colleagues rudely points out that you were quite a chubby as an infant. You, however, are not offended. Explain to your colleagues the benefit of baby fat.

answer

infants tend to have a high proportion of brown fat, which contains many mitochondria and is highly vascularized. When broken down, brown fat produces heat that helps to maintain infants' body temperatures. This heat can also warm the blood, which then distributes the heat throughout the body.

question

You've been on a bread and water diet for 3 weeks and have noticed that a cut on your shin won't heal and bleeds easily, why?

answer

your bread and water diet is not providing you with the necessary nutrients to encourage tissue repair. You need proper amounts of many essential vitamins especially vitamin C which is require for repair of the matrix and blood vessels. Vitamin A is needed to help properly maintain epithelial tissue.

question

Tissue rejection

answer

an immune response of the body directed at foreign proteins in a transplanted tissue or organ; immunosuppressive drugs, such as cyclosporine, have largely overcome tissue rejection in heart, kidney, and liver transplant patients.

question

Tissue transplantation

answer

the replacement of a diseased or injured tissue or organ. The most successful transplants involve use of a person's own tissue or those from an identical twin.

question

Xenotransplantation

answer

the replacement of a diseased or injured tissue or organ with cells or tissues from an animal. Porcine (from pigs) and bovine (from cows) heart valves are used for some heart-valve replacement surgeries.

question

auto-immune disease

answer

diseases in which antibodies produced by the immune system fail to distinguish what is foreign from what is self and attack the bodies own tissues.

question

skin grafts

answer

new skin cannot regenerate if an injury destroys a large area of the stratum basale and its stem cells. Skin wounds of this magnitude require grafts in order to heal. A skin graft is the transfer of a patch of healthy skin taken from a donor site to cover a wound. A skin graft is performed to protect against fluid loss and infection, to promote tissue healing, to reduce scar formation, to prevent loss of function, and for cosmetic reasons. To avoid tissue rejection, the transplanted skin is usually taken from the same individual (autograft) or identical twin (isograft). If skin damage is so extensive that an autograft would cause harm, a self-donation procedure, performed most often for severely burned patients, small amounts of a individuals epidermis is removed, and the keratinocytes are cultured in the laboratory to produce thin sheets of skin. The new skin is transplanted back to the patient so that it covers the burn wound and generates a permanent skin. Also available as skin grafts for wound coverage are products grown in laboratory from the foreskins of circumcised infants.

question

Psoriasis

answer

Psoriasis is a common and chronic skin disorder in which keratinocytes divide and move more quickly than normal from the stratum basale to the stratum corneum. They are shed prematurely in as little as 7-10 days. The immature keratinocytes make an abnormal keratin, which forms flaky, silvery scales at the skin surface, most often on the knees, elbows, and scalp (dandruff). Effective treatments-various topical ointments and ultraviolet phototherapy-suppress cell division, decrease the rate of cell growth, or inhibit keratinization.

question

Stretch marks

answer

because of the collagenous, vascular structure of the dermis, striae or stretch marks a form of internal scarring, can result from the internal damage to this layer that occurs when the skin is stretched too much. When the skin is overstretched, the lateral bonding between adjacent collagen fibers is disrupted and small dermal blood vessels rupture. This is why stretch marks initially appear as reddish streaks at these sites. Later, after scar tissue ( which is poorly vascularized) forms at these sites of dermal breakdown, the stretch marks appear as silvery white streaks. Stretch marks often occur in the abdominal skin during pregnancy, on the skin of weight lifters where the skin is stretched by rapid increase in muscle mass , and in the stretched skin accompanying gross obesity.

question

Albinism and Vitiligo

answer

albinism is the inherited inability to produce melanin. Most albinos have melanocytes that are unable to synthesize tyrosinase. Melanin is missing from their hair, eyes, and skin. This results with problems in vision and a tendency of the skin to burn easily on overexposure to sunlight. In another condition called vitiligo the partial or complete loss of melanocytes may be related to an immune system malfunction in which antibodies attack the melanocytes.

question

Skin color as a diagnostic clue

answer

the color of the skin and mucous membranes can provide clues for diagnosing certain conditions. When blood is not picking up an adequate amount of oxygen from the lungs, as in someone who has stopped breathing, the mucous membranes, nail beds, and skin appear bluish or cyanotic. Jaundice is due to a buildup of yellow pigment bilirubin in the skin. This condition gives a yellowish appearance to the skin and whites of the eyes, and usually indicates liver disease. Erythema, redness of the skin, is caused by engorgement of capillaries in the dermis with blood due to skin injury, exposure to heat, infection, inflammation, or allergic reactions. Pallo, or paleness of the skin, may occur in conditions such as shock or anemia. All skin color changes are observed most readily in people with light colored skin. In people with dark color skin , gums, and nail beds can provide some information about circulation.

question

Chemotherapy and hair loss

answer

in the treatment of disease, usually cancer, by means of chemical substances or drugs. Chemotherapeutic agents interrupt the life cycle of rapidly dividing cancer cells. Unfortunately, the drugs also affect other rapidly dividing cells in the body, such as hair matrix cells. It is for this reason that individual's undergoing chemotherapy experience hair loss. Since about 15% of the hair matrix cells of scalp hairs are in the resting stage, these cells are not affected by chemotherapy. Once chemotherapy is topped, the hair matrix cells replace lost hair follicles and hair regrowth resumes.

question

Acne

answer

during childhood, sebaceous glands are relatively small and inactive. At puberty, androgens from the testes and ovaries and adrenal glands stimulate sebaceous glands to grow in size and increase their production of sebum. Acne is an inflammation of sebaceous glands that usually begins at puberty, when the sebaceous glands are stimulated by androgens. Acne occurs predominantly in sebaceous follicles that have been colonized by bacteria, some of which thrive in the lipid rich sebum. The infection may cause a cyst or sac of connective tissue cells to form, which can destroy and displace epidermal cells. This condition, called cystic acne, can prematurely scar the epidermis. Treatment consists of gently washing the affected areas once or twice a day with mild soap, topical antibiotics such as (clindamycin and erythromycin), topical drugs (tetracycline, minocycline, erythromycin, and isotrentinoin). Contrary to popular belief foods such as chocolate or fried foods do not cause or worsen acne.

question

Impacted Cerumen

answer

some people produce an abnormally large amount of cerumen in the external auditory canal. If it accumulates until it becomes impacted, sounds waves may be prevented from reaching the eardrum. Treatments for impacted cerumen include periodic ear irrigation with enzymes to dissolve the wax and removal of wax with a blunt instrument. The use of cotton swabs or sharp instruments is not recommended for this purpose because they may push the cerumen further into the external auditory canal and damage the ear drum.

question

What types of tissues make up the epidermis and dermis?

answer

the epidermis is composed of epithelial tissue; the dermis is made up of connective tissue

question

What is the function of melanin?

answer

melanin protects DNA of keratinocytes from the damaging effects of UV light.

question

Why does it hurt when you pluck out a hair but not when you get a haircut?

answer

plucking hair stimulates root hair plexuses in the dermis, some of which are sensitive to pain. Because cells of a hair shaft are already dead and the hair shaft lacks nerves, cutting hair is not painful.

question

Why are nails so hard?

answer

nails are hard because they are composed of tightly packed, hard, keratinized epidermal cells.

question

The amount of dust that collects in a house with an assortment of dogs, cats and people is truly amazing. A lot of these dust particles had a previous life as part of the homes living occupants. Where did the dust originate on the human body?

answer

the dust particle are primarily keratinocytes shed from the stratum corneum of the skin.

question

Josie reassures her mother that the tattoo she received at the tattoo parlor will eventually disappear. She knows this because she has learned in biology class that skin cells are shed every 4 weeks, is Josie correct?

answer

tattoos are created by depositing ink into the dermis, which does not undergo shedding as the epidermis does. Although the tattoo will fade due to exposure to sunlight and the flushing away of ink particles by the lymphatic system, the tattoo is permanent.

question

Six months ago Chef Eduardo sliced through the end of his right thumb nail. Although the surrounding nail grows normally, this part of his nail remains split and doesn't seem to want to heal. What has happened to cause this?

answer

Eduardo has damaged his nail matrix, the part of the nail that produces growth. Because the damaged area has not regrown properly, the nail matrix may be permanently damaged.

question

Abrasion

answer

an area where skin has been scraped away

question

Blister

answer

a collection of serous fluid within the epidermis or between epidermis/dermis

question

Callus

answer

an area of hardened thickened skin usually in the palms and soles due to persistent pressure and friction.

question

Cold sore/ fever blister

answer

a lesion usually in the oral mucous membrane caused by type 1 herpes simplex virus, the virus remains dormant until triggered by; UV light, hormones or stress

question

Comedo/blackhead

answer

a collection of sebaceous material and dead cells in the hair follicle and excretory duct of the sebaceous (oil) gland. Usually found over face, chest ,back during adolescence

question

Contact dermatitis

answer

inflammation of the skin caused by exposure to chemicals that bring about an allergic reaction, such as poison ivy toxins.

question

Contusion

answer

tissue deep to the skin is damaged but epidermis is not broken

question

Corn

answer

a painful conical thickening of the stratum coreum of the epidermis found over toe joints caused by friction or pressure.

question

Cyst

answer

a sac with a distinct connective tissue wall, containing a fluid.

question

Eczema

answer

inflammation of the skin, occurs mostly in skin creases, typically begins in infancy and can be outgrown, cause is unknown.

question

Frostbite

answer

local destruction of skin and subcutaneous tissue on exposed surfaces as a result of extreme cold, in mild cases skin appears blue, swollen with slight pain, severe cases include considerable selling, no pain, some bleeding, and blistering, frostbite is treated by rewarming

question

Hemangioma

answer

localized benign tumor of the skin and subcutaneous layer that result from abnormal increase in blood vessels. Portwine stain; a flat, pink/red, or purple lesion present at birth.

question

Keloid

answer

an elevated irregular darkened area of scar tissue caused by collagen formation during healing. It occurs in the dermis and subcutaneous tissue usually after trauma, surgery, burn, severe acne; more common in African descent.

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Laceration

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irregular tear in skin

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Lice

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contagious arthropods of 2 types; head lice-tiny, jumping arthropods that suck blood from the scalp they lay eggs called nits, their saliva causes itching. Pubic lice-tiny arthrpods that do not jump, they look like miniature crabs

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Papule

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small round skin elevation, ie; pimple

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Pruritus

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itching, one of the most common dermatological disorders, may be caused by skin disorders, infection, cancer, kidney failure stress, allergic reactions

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Tinea corporis/ringworm

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fungal infection characterized by scaling, itching, and sometimes painful lesions that may appear anywhere on the body

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Wart

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mass produced b y uncontrolled growth of epithelial skin cells, caused by a papillomavirous, most warts are non-cancerous.

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Biopsy

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the removal of a sample of living tissue for microscopic examination. This procedure is used to help diagnose many disorders, especially cancer, and to discover the cause of unexplained infections and inflammations. Both normal and potentially diseased tissues are removed for purposes of comparison. Once the tissue sample are removed, either surgically or through a needle and syringe, they may be preserved, stained to highlight special properties, or cut into thin sections for microscopic observation. Sometimes a biopsy is conducted while the patient is anesthetized during surgery to help a physician determine the most appropriate treatment. For example, if a biopsy of thyroid tissue reveals malignant cells, the surgeon can proceed immediately with the most appropriate procedure.

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Papanicolaou

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also called a pap test or pap smear involves collection and microscopic examination of epithelial cells that have been scraped off the apical layer of tissue. A very common type of pap test involves examining the cells from the non keratinized stratified squamous epithelium of the vagina and cervix of the uterus. This type of pap test is performed mainly to detect early changes in the cells of the female reproductive system that may indicate a precancerous condition or cancer. In performing a Pap smear, the cells are scraped from the tissue and then smeared on a microscopic slide and sent to a lab for analysis. Pap test should be performed every 3 beginning at 21, females 30-65 should have pap and HPV (human pappilomavirus) every 5 years

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Chondroitin Sulfate, Glucosamine, and Joint Disease

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chondroitin sulfate and glucosamine have been used as nutritional supplements either alone or in combination to promote and maintain the structure and function of joint cartilage, to provide pain relief from osteoarthritis, and to reduce joint inflammation. Although these supplements have benefited some with moderate to severe arthritis the benefit is minimal in lesser cases.

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Tissue Engineering

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tissue engineering is a technology that combine synthetic material with cells and has allowed to grow new tissues in the lab to replace damaged tissues in the body. Tissue engineers have already developed lab-grown versions of skin and cartilage using scaffolding beds of biodegradable synthetic materials or collagen as substrates that permit body cells to be cultured. As the cells divide and assemble, the scaffolding degrades; the new permanent tissue is then implanted in the patient. Other structured currently under development; bones, tendons, heart valves, bone marrow, intestines.

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Adhesions

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scar tissue can form adhesions-abnormal joining of tissues. Adhesions commonly form in the abdomen around a previous site of inflammation such as an inflamed appendix, and they can develop after surgery. Adhesions do not always cause problems, they can decrease flexibility, cause obstruction, and make a subsequent operation more difficult. In rare cases adhesions can cause infertility. An adhesiotomy, the surgical release of adhesions may be required.

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Systemic lupus erythematosus

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lupus is a chronic inflammatory disease of connective tissue occurring mostly in nonwhite women during their childbearing years. Genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors contribute to lupus.

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4 basic types of tissues

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epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous

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cell junctions

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points of contact between adjacent plasma membranes

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tight junctions form fluid tight seals between cells

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adherens junction, desmosomes, and hemidesmosomes anchor cells to the basement membrane

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epithelial tissue

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many cells tightly packed together and is avascular, but has nerve supply, the high rate of cell division gives epithelial tissue a high capacity for renewal

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connective tissue

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relatively few cells with lots of extracellular material

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subtypes of epithelial tissue

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lining epithelium, glandular epithelium

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surfaces of epithelial cells modified to carry out specific functions

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apical, lateral, and basal

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epithelial layers

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simple, stratified, or pseutostratified

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epithelial cell shapes

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squamous (flat) cuboidal ( cube like) columnar (rectangular) transitional (variable)

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simple squamous epithelium

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single layer of flat cells that resemble a tile floor LOCATION: cardiovascular and lymphatic systems FUNCTION: present at sites of filtration (blood filtration in kidneys) or diffusion ( diffusion of oxygen in blood vessels of lungs) not found in areas of mechanical stress

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endothelium

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lines the heart and blood vessels

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mesothelium

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forms the serous membranes that line the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and covers organs within them

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simple cuboidal epithelium

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single layer of cubed shaped cells that LOCATION: in; ovaries, kidneys, eyes, and lining some glandular ducts FUNCTION: in secretion and absorption,

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Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium

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single layer of nonciliated rectangular cells LOCATION: lines gastrointestinal tract, and gallbladder FUNCTION: secretion and absorption, mucous lubricates linings of digestive, respiratory, reproductive, urinary tracts, protects stomach lining from acidic juice excreted by stomach.

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ciliated simple columnar epithelium

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single layer of ciliated column like cells LOCATION: lines some bronchials of respiratory, uterine, paranasal, central canal of spinal cord, and ventricle of brain FUNCTION: cilia move mucous and foreign particles toward throat

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Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

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has several layers LOCATION: ciliated version is found in airways, nonciliated in glands, epididymis, male urethra FUNCTION: secretes mucous that traps foreign particles

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Stratified squamous epithelium

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two or more layers LOCATION: keratinized variety in superficiallayer of skin, nonkeritanized lines wet surfaces FUNCTION: protection against abrasion, water loss, UV rays

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stratified cuboidal epithelium

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two or more layers apical layer is cube shaped LOCATION: sweat/esophageal glands, male urethra FUNCTION: protection, limited secretion and absorption

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Stratified columnar epithelium

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basal layer consists of shortened, irregularly shaped cells; apical layer has columnar cells LOCATION: urethra, excretory ducts of some glands FUNCTION: protection and secretion

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Transitional epithelium

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variable appearance LOCATION: urinary bladder, ureters FUNCTION: allows urinary organs to stretch

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