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philosophy

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means: "love of wisdom"

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ethics

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- is from philosophy - there is no right or wrong - critical thinking needed - is not law - is not prudence

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philosophy

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branches into: -epistemology "study of knowledge" -metaphysics "study of reality" - ethics "study of morality"

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epistemology

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"study of knowledge" - asks questions (what is knowledge, how do we know something is true) - finds answers - coherentism - pragmatism - correspondence

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ethics

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"study of morality"

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metaphysics

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"study of reality"

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prudence

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- is to use discrimination - evaluating consequences and risks

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Plato

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- epistemologist - studied under Socrates - asks questions about knowledge & the universe around him - believed in the Tripartite theory of Knowledge or Justified True Belief

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Tripartite theory of Knowledge or Justified True Belief

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(Plato believed) eg "Brad knows that X is true if: (1) X is true. (2) Brad believes that X is true. (3) Brad justified in believing that X is true." - These 3 things have to be shown to know that something is true. The importance of justifying is an argument between philosophers. - Problems with this theory: (1) is that you can have justified true belief without actually processing knowledge. (2) How knowledge and beliefs are justified.

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Belief formed through Plato's theory (sextist and Puricus)

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We have to continually justify ourselves for infinite to gain knowledge. eg "Leo Tolstoy wrote War and Peace" is a justified true belief. - the only thing that can be justify this statement is another statement. - this philosopher thought to not judge things, just enter with a clear mind and live in happiness.

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coherentism theory of knowledge

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something is true as long as it consistant with an already accepted statement of belief eg believing that you could fall off the edge of the earth sailing past the horizon because the earth is flat

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pragmatism theory of knowledge

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a belief is true if it makes a practical difference in ones life. Truth is subjective and relative to each individual eg a bad person turning good because of a new found belief in God Problem: not consistent & is contradictory eg belief in God

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correspondence theory of knowledge

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something is true as long as it corresponds with a fact. The object is always true, but the subject can be labelled as true or false Problem: the object is taken and perceived through our senses which leaves room for error.

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argument

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series of facts or statements that lead to a conclusion, and is different from contradiction. Made up of PROPOSITION, CONCLUSION & PREMISES

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PROPOSITION

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(argument) is a statement of fact which can labelled as true or false eg all humans are mortal

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CONCLUSION

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end of argument

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premises

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(argument) propositions or statements of facts that lead to the conclusion

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value assumption

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(argument) eg every human life is valuable - assumes that this is a common value

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conceptual matter

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(argument) something in an argument that needs to further defined. eg every HUMAN LIFE is valuable... - the means of ``human life`` needs to be further defined

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analogy

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(argument) - original argument: people with mental illnesses can recover from their disease & should not be shunned after they have recovered - with _______: a person with pneumonia can recover from their disease & should not be shunned after they have recovered - needs a close comparison

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logic

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(argument) Defines if an argument is good (sound) or bad sound argument: premises have to support the conclusion & have to be true

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sound argument

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(1) premises have to support the conclusion (2) Premises have to be true

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There are two main branches in ethics:

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1. normative ethics 2. meta-ethics

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normative ethics

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(branch of ethics) actually make a judgement about something

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meta-ethics

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(branch of ethics) means "beyond ethics," does not make a judgement, examines the wording in an argument

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Intrinsic Good

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goods which are good unto themselves, are good because they are good eg happiness

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Extrinsic Good

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are good only because they lead to something else eg money bringing happiness 2 types: instrumental & Complementary

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Instrumental Extrinsic Good:

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(type of Extrinsic Good) something that is good because its a means to an end

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Complementary Extrinsic Good:

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(type of Extrinsic Good) is good because it compliments something else eg taxes to implement universal health care

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moral

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means right

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immoral

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means wrong

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amoral

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a term in reference to a person who has no moral guidelines eg having coffee is like killing, rare condition can be caused by frontal lobe damage

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non-moral

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something that has nothing to do with ethics or morals eg lion killing a gazelle, manners

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Descriptive Statement

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describes something without making a judgement eg capital punishment acts as a deterrant

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prescriptive (normative) statement

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judges something

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conscience

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moral compass, regardless to education & upbringing. Charles Darwin believes that this is from evolution, not from God

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There are two main types of ethic theories:

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1) Non-Consequentalist/Deontological: 2) Consequentalist/Teleological:

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Non-Consequentalist/Deontological:

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means "duty act," looks at the act or motive to determine if the actions were moral or immoral

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Consequentalist/Teleological:

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means "end," relates to the consequences of an act. Killing your friend to only loose one person rather then 3.

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divine command theory

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religion has dictated morality. X is good because God wills it, X is bad because God condemns it. Benefits: heaven preventing immoral actions, as well the numbers of ppl disagreeing with your actions does not determine if your actions were moral or not due to God's beliefs. Weaknesses: Who can determine what God told someone, atheist's in this belief have no morals, can God change his mind?

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Divine Command Theory

answer

Morality and religion have been closely tied to one another for thousands of years. Until quite recently, religion was the primary, if not the only, source of morals. Religion generally disseminated its ethical guidelines through sacred texts, oral traditions and/or important figures (e.g. prophets). A couple hundred years ago, however, the enlightenment questioned the authority of religion in the realm of ethics, and, instead, claimed that reason should ethic's sole authority.

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euthyphro

answer

(story that outlines one of the major problems with divine command theory) meets socrates and tells him he wants his father to be thrown in jail because it was wrong he murder his servant. Socrates replies with "what is good?"

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socrates

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(story that outlines one of the major problems with divine command theory) asks euthyphro do the God's fight about morality. Asks is morality coming directly from the Gods? If it comes outside of the Gods we do not need the Gods for morality

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teleological

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looks at the consequences

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deontological

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looks at the act

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Ethical Relativism

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there is no objective right or wrong. Rather, morality is relative to either individuals or societies.

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Individual Ethical Relativism

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there is no objective right or wrong. Rather, morality is relative to individuals eg a boy killing a kitten because he does not think it is wrong to him, it may be wrong to others problem: no one can do wrong, no consequences

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Cultural Ethical Relativism

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there is no objective right or wrong. Rather, morality is relative to societies eg female circumcision in africa - strengths: (1) ppl subscribe to this due to TOLERANCE, to avoid the effects of intolerance (2) Diversity of morals - weaknesses: (1) inconsistency on the grounds of tolerance (2) no universal moral guidelines (3) what do you do with intolerance? (4) surface differences may not actually be differences & similarities between cultures can be shown (5) many belong to more then one culture, the word culture is very broad (6) cannot have ethical arguments in it

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Cultural Ethical Relativism

answer

is deontological, morals are subjective

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Moral Realism

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morals are objective. 2 branches: Moral Absolutism & Moral Pluralism

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Cultural Ethical Relativism

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cannot judge other cultures, only judge their own

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Moral Absolutism

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(Moral Realism) morals stay the same in every single circumstance

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Moral Pluralism

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(Moral Realism) there is a number of difference moral values & guidelines. Because they are different they sometimes conflict, but nevertheless they are still completely valid and completely equal eg harming someone in self defense

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Ethical Egoism

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is based on Psychological Egoism, which claims that all humans are intrinsically selfish. Believe that we should act according to our selfish desires at all times. weaknesses: (1) not everything is done in own self interest eg smoking & drinking (2) altruistic acts (doing an act with no concern for yourself). (3) it is hard to argue motivation

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normative

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makes a judgement

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altruistic act

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doing an act with no concern for yourself

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ethical egoism

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1. We are not able to perform an action except out of self -interest. 2. We are not morally obligated to perform an action unless motivated by self- interest. 3. Therefore, we are morally obligated to do only what our self- interest motivates us to do. Problem: goes from a descriptive (is) to a normative statement (ought). Big leap to say "this is the way things are therefore this is how we should act" 2 branches: individual & universal

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Individual Ethical Egoism

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(ethical egoism) I ought to act according to my own self-interested, & everyone around me ought to act in my own self-interest

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universal ethical egoism

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(ethical egoism) everyone should act according to their own self-interest, regardless of the interests of others problem: things results in chaos eg ppl fighting over food. prisoner's dilemma...

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psychological egoism

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(ethical egoism) all of us are intrinsically selfish (descriptive statement). If you do a kind act for another it is because you expect something in return

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prisoners dilemma

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problem with ethical egoism - remaining silent vs ratting your friend out, being selish and ratting him out in chance for no jail time, but if both ppl rat out one another they both go to jail.

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problems with ethical egoism

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1. cannot bring an ought to and is or vice versa 2. does not always work out in certain scenarios 3. does not deal with ethics, deals with prudence

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prudence

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to act according to egoism instead of ethics, weighing out risks and consequences

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strengths of ethical egoism

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1. it is only a matter of deciding what is best for you 2. makes ethics easy 3. cultural

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ethical egoism

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is teleological

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the ring of gyges

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glaucon: the origin of justice... is a mean or compromise, bet the best of all, which is to do injustice and not be punished, and the worst of all, which is to suffer injustice, being at a middle point bet the 2, is tolerated not as good, but as a lesser evil....

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glaucon

answer

believes that if anyone was given the invisible ring of gyges we will all do the same thing because we are all selfish

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thomas hobbes

answer

Says in LEVIATHAN the human beings are intrinsically selfish and power hungry, he subscribes to psychological egoism, he says that each of us are capable of murder, not everyones desires are going to be fulfilled, he believes in a chaotic society (eg food). We need a leader to keep us from falling into chaos and war (supreme ruler)

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leviathan

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is a scary sea monster, thomas hobbes says we need a king like this to prevent us from going into war and chaos due to psychological egoism

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Utilitarianism

answer

This theory began with Jeremy Bentham. who believed all actions should be judged by their consequences and in accordance with the Utility Principle, which is: The morally best (or better) alternative is that which produces the greatest (or greater) net utility, where utility is defined in terms of pleasure or happiness. (something is good if it produces the most pleasure and happiness for the most # of ppl)

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Utility Principle

answer

(Utilitarianism) The morally best (or better) alternative is that which produces the greatest (or greater) net utility, where utility is defined in terms of pleasure or happiness. (something is good if it produces the most pleasure and happiness for the most # of ppl)

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empiricism

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(Jeremy Bentham) belief that the only knowledge one can have is through direct observations, studies and experiments, does not believe in gut feelings.

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felicfic calculus

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(Jeremy Bentham) calculations of happiness. Pleasure - pain. Act A: gives 10 people pleasure and 5 people pain = 5 units of pleasure Act B: gives 4 people pleasure and 0 people pain = 4 units of pleasure According to Bentham act A is more moral. Intensity of pleasure and pain must be taken into account.... Act A: gives 10 people pleasure (4/10) and 5 people pain (2/10) = 30 units of pleasure Act B: gives 4 people pleasure (8/10) and 0 people pain = 32 units of pleasure Now act B is most moral the duration of pain and pleasure must be taken into account.... Act A: gives 10 people pleasure (4/10) at 5 days and 5 people pain (2/10) at 5 days. Act B: gives 4 people pleasure (8/10) at 2 days and 0 people pain. Now act A is more moral

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felicfic calculus

answer

pleasure - pain. With taking duration, intensity, fruitfulness & probability into account

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fruitfulness

answer

(utilitarianism) the possibility that action X will lead to more pleasurable actions. the chance that X has of being followed by sensation of the same kind: that is, pleasures, if it be a pleasure: pains, if it be a pain. ** definition: pleasure in the future

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probability

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(utilitarianism) the possibility that action X itself will lead to pleasure. eg eating a chocolate bar vs buying a lottery ticket and winning = eating a chocolate bar will give more pleasure, because the chances of winning the lottery are low

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happiness economics

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(utilitarianism) numbers assigned to pleasure & pain and enforced in the court of law in the USA

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john stuart mill

answer

(utilitarianism) ...

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utilitarianism

answer

problem: majority rules eg woman who was raped by 6 man, womans pain could be 100, and each man pleasure is measured in 20 units, which would deem these acts moral.

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act utilitarianism

answer

consider the consequences of some particular act strengths: logical, objective, treats all ppl as equal, avoids absolutism weakness: allows for horrible acts to be considered moral, majority rules in many cases,

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rule utilitarianism

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consider the consequences of some practice rule of beh, takes a rule or general practice and apply it. eg if I start stealing then everyone might think it is ok and everyone will do so as well strengths: logical, objective, treats all ppl as equal weakness: absolutism

question

john stuart mills

answer

benthans theory of utilitarianism.... measured statisfaction

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Utilitarianism

answer

2 types: act & rule strengths: logical, objective, treats all ppl as equal weakness: avoids conscience & gut feelings, mistakes are considered immoral, judged based on consequences which does not always work best, goes against basic human intuitions

question

Ethics

answer

is NOT that branch of philosophy that seeks to discover what different moral beliefs different people do in fact have

question

Ethics

answer

is that branch of philosophy that is concerned with how we ought to live, with the idea of the good, and with the meaning of such concepts as right and wrong.

question

ethics

answer

one reason why we study _____ is to see whether we can justify the beliefs we already hold

question

moral theory

answer

A _______ is a systematic presentation of some view of the basis of good and bad

question

Ethics

answer

NOT is primarily a descriptive discipline

question

emotions or feelings

answer

While ___________ may play some role in moral considerations, one is also expected to give reasons for one's moral judgments

question

Ethical considerations

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do NOT always start with the top, in other words, with the formulation of ethical principles or basic ethical values

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normative statement

answer

"People often find it difficult to do what they believe is right" is NOT a _________ statement

question

normative ethics

answer

eg "Capital punishment is wrong because it is wrong to directly take a human life."

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metaethics

answer

one analyzes the meaning and function of ethical language.

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teleological moral theory

answer

is one in which ends or goals play a key role.

question

ethics

answer

A branch of philosophy that uses reason to support positions.

question

metaethics

answer

The meanings of ethical language.

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Religion

answer

_____ gives a good ethical foundation because It can provide the motivation and inspiration for ethical action

question

reason for developing our natural moral reasoning skills

answer

-We should be able to critically evaluate our own beliefs. - People of all perspectives should be able to hold meaningful dialogue with each other. - The diversity of the community necessitates values built of reason.

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Immoral

answer

A synonym for unethical is

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important to making a good argument

answer

- Ethics requires skillful reasoning - The structure of the argument - The conclusion follows from the premises - The argument has internal logic

question

sound argument

answer

Another name for a good argument is

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Ethical theory

answer

Provides reasons for judging actions to be right or wrong

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The difference between teleological and deontological

answer

Deontological is focused of intention and teleological is focused on consequence

question

Deontological

answer

is focused of intention

question

teleological

answer

is focused on consequence

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Euthyphro

answer

is about...

question

ethical relativism

answer

there is no objective good or bad, right or wrong.

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Social or cultural relativism

answer

holds that what is right is whatever one's society or culture holds is right

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individual ethical relativism

answer

I cannot be objectively mistaken in my moral judgments

question

moral skeptics

answer

hold that it is difficult or impossible to know what is good or bad, right or wrong

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disagree; disagreement

answer

If people ______ about some moral matter, their ________ will NOT always be due to their having different moral values.

question

G. E. Moore

answer

is classified as a moral realist because he believed that there was some really existing quality of goodness that we could perceive by intuition.

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Moral pluralists

answer

problem: whether the good is one or many

question

Ethical relativism

answer

holds that There is no objective right and wrong.

question

Social cohesion

answer

Which is not a reason for supporting ethical relativism

question

reason for supporting ethical relativism

answer

- Moral uncertainty. - Diversity of moral views. - Situational differences.

question

supervenient moral property

answer

may include: - Courage - Generosity. - Honesty.

question

Mary Migley, "moral isolationism"

answer

Is not forced upon us and makes no sense at all.

question

Isolating barriers

answer

Prevent us from truly examining our own culture.

question

ethical egoism

answer

is a normative theory, about what we OUGHT to do, how we OUGHT to act.

question

Psychological egoism

answer

is a descriptive theory

question

ethical egoism

answer

is a normative theory.

question

normative theory

answer

is a theory that tells us what we ought to do.

question

descriptive theory

answer

is a theory that tells us what IS

question

psychological egoism

answer

is a theory about what ppl are like, ppl are basically selfish.

question

psychological egoism

answer

The motivational form of ___________ asserts that we always TRY do what we think is in our own best interest

question

utilitarianism

answer

The view that everyone ought to take care of him or herself because this would work to the benefit of all is not egoism but a form of ___________.

question

Abramham Lincoln

answer

it was reported one day that he was riding in a coach over a bridge he heard a mother pig sqeeling. her piglets had slipped into the water. He then rescued the pigs. When his companion said that he was UNSELFISH he responded that he did not do this because of the pigs sake but because later on he would have no peace thinking about the incident if he acted otherwise

question

evaluation ethical egoism

answer

is done by: - grounding in psychological egoism - consitency or coherence - derivation from economic theory - conformity to commonsense morality

question

W.D. Falk

answer

suppose we want to know if someone has been given a moral education. someone might answer that she had because she had been taught not to lie, to treat others kindly, not to drink to excess, & to work hard. when asked what reasons she had been given for behaving thus, suppose she responded that she was taught not to lie because others would not trust her. treat others well because they would do the same in return. work hard because it brought satisfaction. ________ thinks that this is not a sign of MORAL EDUCATION that she had been given counsels of PRUDENCE

question

W.D. Falk

answer

thinking if one has prudence they cannot have moral education

question

Benjamin Franklin's

answer

The counsels in _________ Poor Richard's Almanac were examples of how practicing certain virtues was in a person's own best interest

question

psychological egoism

answer

people Act in the way they perceive to be best for them.

question

rescued

answer

In the story questioning Lincoln's ability to be selfless, Lincoln ________ piglets

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self-satisfaction

answer

For psychological egoism to be valid, we must show people Act with an aim of achieving ____________.

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individual ethical egoism

answer

one should Do what is in one's self interest

question

Effectiveness in satisfying individual interest

answer

___________________ is not used in evaluating ethical egoism

question

ethical egoism

answer

examples: - We should treat others well because we want to be treated well in return. - We should work hard because a "job well done is its own reward." - We should work hard because doing so is a good model for our children.

question

ring of Gyges

answer

A ring that cam make the wearer invisible, therefore good ppl can commit bad actions without being caught

question

Glaucon

answer

Even "good" people will do evil if they can act without consequence

question

act utilitarianism

answer

states we OUGHT to consider the consequences of EACH ACT SEPARATELY

question

rule utilitarianism

answer

states we OUGHT to consider the consequences of the act performed as a GENERAL PRACTICE

question

cost-benefit analysis

answer

is a measure of efficiency. problem: is it hard to put a value on things such as freedom/life.

question

calculating the greatest amount of happiness

answer

- pleasure minus pain - duration - intensity - fruitfulness - likelihood or probability

question

classical utilitarianism

answer

is a pleasure or happiness theory

question

instrumental goods

answer

are useful for attaining the goals of happiness & pleasure

question

intrinsic goods

answer

are good in themselves

question

intrinsic good

answer

The reason that Mill believes that pleasure is the only __________ is because he believes that it is the only thing that everyone desires for its own sake

question

principle of utility/greater happiness principle

answer

basic moral principle of utilitarianism

question

Utilitarianism

answer

is a moral theory that holds that we ought to promote utility and not pleasure.

question

intrinsic

answer

utilitarian moral theory, happiness is an ______ good.

question

Mill

answer

wrote in Utilitarianism "all the grand sources of human suffering are in a great degree, many of them almost entirely, conquerable by human care and effort."

question

Bentham

answer

According to _______, some pleasures may be more valuable than others but only in so far as they are of greater intensity or duration

question

act utilitarianism

answer

if it produces more net utility or pleasure to give money that I had promised to return to a friend, to famine relief instead, then I ought to give it to the relief fund.

question

utility

answer

pleasure

question

rule utilitarian

answer

"If the practice of lying is bad, then one ought not to lie now, even if in this case to lie would actually bring about better consequences."

question

Mill

answer

In his Utilitarianism _____ answers those who say that his theory is a crass pleasure theory fit only for beasts by noting that though it is a pleasure theory it acknowledges a wide variety of pleasures including those that only humans can experience

question

Mill

answer

According to _______, the only way to prove that something is desirable in itself (as an end) is to notice that people do desire it.

question

Mill

answer

In the reading from Utilitarianism ______ writes that we have learned by experience that murder and theft are wrong because they are generally injurious to human happiness

question

Mill's

answer

In his work, Utilitarianism, _____ test or basis for distinguishing higher from lower pleasures is the preference of those who have experience of both

question

1300

answer

approximately _______ people have leaped to their death from the Golden Gate Bridge

question

The complexity of calculating morality using a cost benefit analysis.

answer

MacKinnon used the story of the Golden Gate Bridge to illistrate _______________________________

question

Rene Descartes

answer

not one of the founders of utilitarianism

question

founders of utilitarianism

answer

- James Mill. - Jeremy Bentham. - John Stuart Mill

question

Pleasure

answer

in utilitarianism what is an example of intrinsic good ________

question

included in calculating the amount of happiness

answer

- Intensity. - Likelihood. - Duration.

question

The result

answer

According to utilitarianism what is most useful for evaluating the morality of an action?

question

As a general practice

answer

Rule Utilitarianism asks that we consider the consequences of each act

question

cost benefit analysis

answer

The ____________ is used by in all of the following circumstances - Choosing to build an airport. - Deciding if taxes are being spent wisely. - Deciding what type of punishment will result in better adults

question

utilitarianism

answer

necessary to act morally according to _______ - To consider all the variables involved in an action. - To consider all people to be of equal value. - To produce a result that produces the greatest good for the greatest number.

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