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learning

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any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice

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classical conditioning

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learning to make an involuntary reflex to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex

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Unconditioned stimulus

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a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary response.

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unconditioned response

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an involuntary reflex to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus

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neutral stimulus

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stimulus that has no effect on desired response

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conditioned stimulus

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stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus.

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conditioned response

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learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus

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stimulus generalization

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the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response

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stimulus discrimination

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the tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus

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extinction

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the disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus or the removal of a reinforcer (in operant conditioning)

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reinforcer

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any event or object that, when following a response, increases the likelihood of that response occurring again.

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spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred

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higher-order conditioning

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occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus

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conditioned emotional response

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emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli, such as fear of dogs, or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person.

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vicarious conditioning

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classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person.

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conditioned taste aversion

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development of nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction occurring after only one association

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biological preparedness

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referring to the tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning

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stimulus substitution

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original theory in which Pavlov stated that classical conditioning occurred because the conditioned stimulus became a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus by being paired closely together.

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cognitive perspective

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modern theory in which classical conditioning is seen to occur because the conditioned stimulus provides information or an expectancy about the coming of the unconditioned stimulus.

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operant conditioning

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the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses. Associated with B.F. Skinner

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law of effect

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law stating that if an action is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it won't be repeated. Developed by Thorndike

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operant

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any behavior that is voluntary

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reinforcement

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any event or stimulus, that when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again

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primary reinforcer

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any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch

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secondary reinforcer

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any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars

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positive reinforcement

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the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus

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negative reinforcement

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the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus

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punishment by application

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the punishment of a response by the addition or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus

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punishment by removal

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the punishment of a response by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus

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shaping

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the reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to a desired, more complex behavior

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successive approximations

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small steps in behavior, one after the other that lead to a particular goal behavior

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discriminative stimulus

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any stimulus such as a stop sign or a doorknob that provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement

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partial reinforcement effect

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the tendency for a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses to be very resistant to extinction

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continuous reinforcement

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the reinforcement of each and every correct response

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fixed ratio schedule of enforcement

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a certain number of responses is required before reinforcement is given.

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variable ratio schedule of enforcement

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a varying number of responses is required to obtain reinforcement

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fixed interval schedule of reinforcement

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at least one correct response must be made within a set interval of time to obtain reinforcement

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variable interval schedule of reinforcement

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reinforcement follows the first correct response made after an interval of time that changes for each reinforcement opportunity

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instinctive drift

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tendency for an animal's behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns

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behavior modification

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the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior.

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applied behavior analysis

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Modern term for a form of behavior modification that uses shaping techniques to mold a desired behavior or response.

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biofeedback

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using of feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses such as blood pressure and relaxation, under voluntary control

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neurofeedback

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form of biofeedback using brain-scanning devices to provide feedback about brain activity in an effort to modify behavior

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latent learning

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learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful

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insight

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the sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come easily.

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learned helplessness

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the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history repeated failures in the past. Seligman expanded his theory of learned helplessness to explain depression.

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observational learning

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learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior

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learning/performing distinction

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referring to the observation that learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior

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elements of observational learning

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attention, memory, imitation, motivation

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Tolman's Classic Study On Latent Learning

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Group 1 - rewarded each time at end of maze. Learned maze quickly. Group 2 - in maze every day; only rewarded on 10th day. Demonstrated learning of maze almost immediately after receiving reward. Group 3 - never rewarded. Did not learn maze well

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memory

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an active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form, and organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from the storage.

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encoding

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the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain's storage systems

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storage

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holding onto information for some period of time

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retrieval

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getting information that is storage into a form that can be used

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information-processing model

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model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages.

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levels-of-processing model

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model of memory that assumes information that is more "deeply processed," or processed according to its meaning, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time

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parallel distributed processing (PDP) model

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a model of memory in which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections

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sensory memory

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the very first stage of memory, the point at which info enters the nervous system through the sensory systems

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iconic memory

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visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second. Information will be pushed out very quickly by new information, a process called masking.

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eidetic imagery

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the ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds

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echoic memory

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the brief memory of something a person has just heard

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short-term memory (stm)

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the memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used

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selective attention

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the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input

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working memory

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an active system that processes the information in short-term memory.

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maintenance rehearsal

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practice of saying some information to be remembered over and over in one's head in order to maintain it in short term memory

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long-term memory

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the system of memory into which all information is placed to be kept more or less permanently

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elaborative rehearsal

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a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way

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procedural (implicit) memory

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type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses. Likely involves the amygdala and cerebellum

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anterograde amnesia

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loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories.

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implicit memory

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memory that is not easily brought into conscious awareness, such as procedural memory

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declarative memory (explicit memory)

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type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known

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semantic memory

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type of declarative memory containing general knowledge, such as knowledge of language and information learned in education

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episodic memory

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type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and events.

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semantic network model

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model of memory organization that assumes information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion, with concepts that are related stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related

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retrieval cue

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a stimulus for remembering

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encoding specificity

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the effectiveness of memory retrieval is directly related to the similarity of cues present when the memory was encoded to the cues present when the memory is retrieved.

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recall

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type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be "pulled" from memory with very few external cues.

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recognition

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the ability to match incoming sensory info to what is already in memory

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serial position effect

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tendency of information at the beginning and end of a body of information to be remembered more accurately then information in the middle of the body of information

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primacy effect

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tendency to remember information at the beginning better then the info that follows

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recency effect

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tendency to remember information at the end of a body of info better than the info at the beginning

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false positive

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error of recognition in which people think that they recognize some stimulus that is not actually in memory

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automatic encoding

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tendency of certain kinds of info to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding

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flashbulb memories

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type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it.

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constructive processing

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view of memory retrieval in which those memories are altered, revised, or influenced by newer information

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hindsight bias

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tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have predicted the outcome of an event

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misinformation effect

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the tendency of misleading information presented after and event to alter the memories of the event itself

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false memory syndrome

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the creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others, often while the person is under hypnosis.

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encoding failure

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failure to process information into memory

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memory trace

answer

physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed

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decay (disuse)

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memory loss due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used.

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proactive interference

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memory retrieval problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of newer informatio

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retroactive interference

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memory retrieval problem that occurs when newer information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information

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consolidation

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the changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when an engram is formed

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engram

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physical change in brain when memory formed

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retrograde amnesia

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loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory from the past

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Anterograde amnesia

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loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories. (Damaged hippocampus)

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