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any relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience

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learning

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involves learning associations between events which occur in an organism's environment

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conditioning

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won a Nobel peace prize for his work with digestion

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Pavlov

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irrational fears of specific objects or situations

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phobias

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the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response

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shaping

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the formation or initial stages of new conditioned response tendencies (learn to say "dada" from shaping)

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acquistion

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the gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by reinforcement

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extinction

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a form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences

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operant conditioning

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the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus (Pavlov's dog had a period of rest, was brought back in and the CR was weakened)

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spontaneous recovery

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occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to a new stimuli that are similar to the original stimuli EX- Baby Albert or Ms. Foster Dog Max

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stimulus generalization

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occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimuli does not respond in the same way to a new stimuli that is similar to the original stimuli. Ex - Ms. Foster's cat, Callie

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stimulus discrimination

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when a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus (Ex- the tone or CS)

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higher-order conditioning

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this occurs when an event following a response increase's an organism's tendency to make that response

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reinforcement

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a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled. (EX - all vending machines)

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Skinner box

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means to send forth

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emit

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Ms. Foster and Snakes uninvited in her bed freakout snakes freakout

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uninvited in her bed (US) freakout (UR) snakes (CS) freakout (CR)

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Baby Albert loud noise fear/cry rat fear of rats

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loud noise (US) fear/cry (UR) rat (CS) fear of rats (CR)

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Classical Conditioning

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Ivan Pavlov

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2 Types of Reinforcement

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primary - satisy biological needs (sex, food, warmth) secondary - have to learn (money, grades)

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pigeons playing ping pong is an example of ________.

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operant conditioning/ acquisition

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Operant Conditioning

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B. F. Skinner

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in a stimulus situation, a response is followed by favorable consequences (reinforcement) or unfavorable consequences (punishment)

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operant conditioning

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an observer attends to a model's behavior (for example, aggressive bargaining) and its consequences (for example, a good buy on a car)

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Bandura's Observational Learning (response = rewarding stimulus presented) (Albert Bandura)

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Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex and focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors

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classical conditioning

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Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior and focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors

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operant conditioning

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One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between classical and operant conditioning is to focus on whether the behavior is _____ or ________.

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involuntary or voluntary

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________ conditioning involves making an association between an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about making an association between a voluntary behavior and a consequence.

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Classical

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In _______ conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical conditioning involves no such enticements.

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operant

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________ conditioning is passive on the part of the learner.

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classical

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_______ conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished.

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operant

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In a classroom setting, a teacher might utilize _______ conditioning by offering tokens as rewards for good behavior.

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operant

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In animal training, a trainer might utilize ________ conditioning by repeatedly pairing the sound of a clicker with the taste of food. Eventually, the sound of the clicker alone will begin to produce the same response that the taste of food would.

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classical

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occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus.

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positive reinforcement

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occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus.

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negative reinforcement

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occurs when an event weakens the tendency to make that response

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punishment

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In operant conditioning the ______ _______ occur naturally and do not need to be learned. Examples include things that satisfy basic survival needs such as water, food, sleep, air and sex.

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primary reinforcers

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In operant conditioning, _____ ______refers to a situation in which a stimulus reinforces a behavior after it has been associated with a primary reinforcer.

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secondary reinforcement

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a specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time

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schedule of reinforcement

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occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced.

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continuous reinforcement

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occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time

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intermittent reinforcement

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Reinforcement schedules come in many varieties, but four particular types of intermittent schedules have attracted the most interest:

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fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed interval, and variable-interval

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the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses ex - a rat is reinforced for every tenth lever press ex - a salemean is given a bonus for every fourth gym membership sold

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fixed-ratio schedule

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the reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses ex - a slot machine in a casino pays off once every six tries on average. the number of nonwinning responses payoffs varies greatly from one time to the next

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variable-ratio schedule

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the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed ex- students can earn grades (let's assume the grades are reinforcing) by taking exams every three weeks

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fixed-interval schedule

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the interval length varies around a predetermined average ex- a person repeatedly dials a busy phone number (getting through is the reinforcer)

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variable-interval schedule

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True or False Allowing a rat to press a lever to turn off a mild shock is an example of negative reinforcement.

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True

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True or False A stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus in classical conditioning.

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True

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True or False The fact that the principles of conditioning are routinely applied in homes, businesses, schools, and factories indicates that psychology evolves in a sociocultural context.

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True

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True or False Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism has learned a response to a specific stimulus and does NOT respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.

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True

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True or False Concerns about the use of punishment as a disciplinary measure include concerns about side effects including anxiety, anger and resentment

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True

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True or False In positive reinforcement the response is strengthened as a result of the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus.

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False

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True or False B.F. Skinner is associated with operant conditioning.

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True

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True or False Pavlov did his research on cats.

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False

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True or False The extinction stage refers to the first stage of learning something.

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False

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True or False Food would be considered a primary reinforcer.

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True

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"Operant conditioning shapes behavior as a sculptor shapes a lump of clay."

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B. F. Skinner

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Who used classical conditioning?

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Watson

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the father of operant conditioning

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B. F. Skinner

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to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences

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operant conditioning

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reinforcement theory is part of the ____ _____

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operant theory

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roughly changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response

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operant conditioning

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Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior.

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Neutral operants, Reinforcers, Punishers

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responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.

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Neutral operants

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Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. These can be either positive or negative.

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Reinforcers

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Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, therefore weakening behavior.

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Punishers

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the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it.

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punishment

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The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior.

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negative reinforcement

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________ reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding.

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Positive

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the inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach

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tip-of-the-tongue phenomenom

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stimuli that help gain access to memories -- such as hints related information, or partial recollections

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retrieval cues

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trying to recall an event by putting yourself back in the context in which it occurred to aid retrieval

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context cues ex- returning to a childhood home and remembering a flood of memories (going to Vavo's home)

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The _____ ________happens when our recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information.

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misinformation effect

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an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event

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schema However, these mental frameworks also cause us to exclude pertinent information to instead focus only on things that confirm our pre-existing beliefs and ideas. Schemas can contribute to stereotypes and make it difficult to retain new information that does not conform to our established ideas about the world.

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TRUE or FALSE If information really clashes with a schema, it may attract extra attention and deeper processing and thus become more memorable.

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TRUE ex - a slot machine in a professor's office

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the first person to conduct scientific studies on forgetting

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Hermann Ebbinghaus - think of his glasses when I see the bb in his last name

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graphs retention and forgetting over time

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forgetting curve

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When people study meaningful material the forgetting curve lessens. True or false?

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True!

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the proportion of material retained

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retention

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A ___ ___ requires people to reproduce info on their own without any cues.

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recall measure

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A ____ ______retention requires participant to select previously learned information from an array of options

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recognition measure

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A ____ ____ of retention requires a participant to memorize info a second time to determine how much time or effort is saved by having learned it before.

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relearning measure

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Name the three methods of measuring forgetting

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1. recall measure 2. recognition measure 3. relearning measure

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____ ____ proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade over time

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Decay theory

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____ ____ proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material.

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Interference theory

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this occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information

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retroactive interference

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this occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information

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proactive interference

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Motivated forgetting or ______ is keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconsciousness.

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repression

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The ____ _____ principle states that the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code.

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encoding specificity principle

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the process of making interferences about the origins of memories

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source monitoring

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The _____ _______ appears to be due, in part, to the unreliability of source monitoring.

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misinformation effect

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A ___ ____ ______occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source.

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source-monitoring error (ex- attributing something you heard on Dr. Phil to your textbook)

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when a person loses memories for events that occur prior to an injury

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retrograde amnesia

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when a person loses memories for events that occur after the injury

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anterograde amnesia

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