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Historical perspectives on childhood

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childhood is a stage influenced by attitudes and beliefs. in the 16th and 17th century were seen as little adults.

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Middle Ages

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seen as mini adults. morality rate was really high so didn't want to get too connected to the children. They were expected to participate fully in social life.

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18th and 19th century.

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children seen as innocent. puritan idea of original sin changed with Locke's idea of tabula rasa.

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20th century

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children seen for emotional connection not economic worth

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21st cent

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protecting children is a priority.

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Life span perspective

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Human development is multiply determined and cannot be understood within the scope of a single framework. No one factor or approach adequately explains development Bidirectionality Historical context Cultural context Multiple causation Different generations experience/adjust to biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces within the time-period of their lives Personal life events interact with historical influences Individual issues integrate with family issues Earlier life events, and the period of history in which they occurred, shaped subsequent events and issues

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The biopsychosocial framework

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Biological forces Genetic, health-related Psychological forces Cognitive/perceptual, emotional, personality Sociocultural forces Societal, cultural, ethnic, interpersonal Life-cycle forces Identical events, different age groups

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When to use the biopsychosocial framework?

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every time a patient comes into the office so that you can better understand them. Need to understand the history of the person.

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Psychosocial theory: Sigmund Freud

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Psychoanalytic Theory Personality Structure: first few years of life personality is formed as you go through psychosexual stages. 1. Id - governed by pleasure and instinct (pleasure principle) 2. Ego - governed by reality and logic (reality principle) 3. Superego - governed by society and morality (morality principle) Defense Mechanisms - used when people experience anxiety while attempting to keep the id and superego in balance Examples: repression, denial, sublimation, projection, reaction formation, displacement, rationalization, introjection, compensation

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Psychosexual Stages

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Freud believed that the first few years of life determined how personality forms and created a model with five psychosexual stages: 1. Oral Stage - focuses on the pleasures of sucking and eating; the basis of trust and security are formed 2. Anal Stage - focuses on the pleasure received from controlling excretory functions 3. Phallic Stage - characterized by children's fascination with their genitalia and bodily functions Oedipal and Electra complex 4. Latent Stage - calm, stable phase 5. Genital Stage - conscious and unconscious behaviors manifest from early childhood experiences

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repression

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to push aside unwanted or painful thoughts, feelings or experiences involuntarily. EX: people who have experiences of trauma may repress those memories

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denial

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to ignore or turn away from painful realities that others can detect. EX: doctor who is addicted to drugs and is always late to work but doesn't see a problem

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sublimation

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the channel energy from unwanted or unacceptable impulses into more socially appropriate avenues EX: engaging in sports to discharge aggression

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projection

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to attribute ones own feelings to others and not oneself EX: on may criticize coworkers for being stingy with a lunch bill but fail to chip in for the tip

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reaction formation

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to express the opposite impulse in an effort to conceal ones true stance. commonly occurs with repression. EX: may devote life to promoting the sanctity of marriage but have many affairs themselves

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displacement

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to redirect ones feelings towards one object to another EX: mad at professor so you kick the dog.

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rationalization

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to make excuses for ones impulses to provide reassurance and offer incorrect explanations. EX: in order to cope about a bad grade you say the professor was really bad

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introjection

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to accept the values and standards of others without questions. EX: a child may articulate a parents exact political beliefs.

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Compensation

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to conceal perceived limitations by developing strengths elsewhere EX: people who aren't good at sports may try and excel in academics.

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Acting out

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to deal with emotional conflicts with actions rather than by reflecting or being open to feelings EX: children may throw or break things

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Splitting

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to fail to integrate postive and negative aspects of self or others resulting in an imbalanced vacillation between polar opposites. EX: may view others as all good or all bad but go back and forth between idealizing others and devaluing them.

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Goal of psychoanalysis

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to make the unconscious conscious by gaining insight into current patterns with the goal of changing personality, resolving underlying conflict and attaining freedom from the past.

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Freud contributions

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Psychoanalytic Theory, Sigmund Freud Conceptualization of the conscious, unconscious and role of insight in mental health and well-being Conceptualization of intrapsychic conflict and defense mechanisms Acknowledgement of childhood sexuality and sexual development Stimulated numerous theoretical perspectives both in support of and in reaction to his theory Human development primary contribution: Development is largely determined by how well people resolve conflicts they face a different ages.

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Psychosocial theory: Neo freudians

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some contemporaries of freud as well as those who extended and expanded on his ideas. The main difference is they began to focus on interactions and interpersonal relationships not just intrapsychic events. Still focus on internal processes and insight oriented.

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Carl Jung

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he focused more on the later years of a person's life. looked more at spirituality and myths. founded analytical psychology. Individuation: a balanced integration and expression of one's conscious an unconscious.

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Alfred Adler

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Individual psychology. his approach was seen as teleological or goal directed. one of his contributions was a shift to a egalitarian relationship between client and therapist. Private Logic - core assumptions, beliefs, and philosophies an individual holds about life he theorized that by examining faulty conclusions that clients make with private logic clients would be able to overcome feelings of inferiority.

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Karen Horney

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Broadened psychoanalysis to be more responsive to gender dynamics denied the idea of penis envy and just that woman want that power that is associated with being a man Coping Strategies to deal with anxiety 1. helpless 2. aggressive 3. detached

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Harry Stack Sullivan

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Interpersonal Therapy Parataxis Distortions - patterns of skewed or irrational perceptions people have regarding others' perceptions of them they tend to yield self fulfilling prophecies.

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Psychosocial Theory: Erik Erikson

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Psychosocial Development Theory, Erik Erikson An epigenetic theory focusing on biological and genetic origins of behavior interacting with environmental forces over time. Conceptualized each stage as a psychosocial crisis: those can overcome each crisis can move onto the next stage.

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Psychosocial Stages

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1. Infancy - Trust vs. Mistrust, they develop trust when their basic needs are met. if they do not get met they being to mistrust 2. Early Childhood - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt, from 1-2 yrs they explore environment, if parents don't encourage exploration they will become guilty 3. Preschool Age - Initiative vs. Guilty, 3 and 6 yrs. focus on basic sense of competence. if others make all the decisions for them they again feel guilty 4. School Age - Industry vs. Inferiority, 6-12, goal setting without success at a task feelings of inferiority will develop 5. Adolescence - Identity vs. Role Confusion, individuals explore limits failure to find an identity will yield confusion 6. Young Adulthood - Intimacy vs. Isolation, 18 to 35, security with intimacy. without this there will be alienation 7. Middle Age - Generativity vs. Stagnation, 35 to 60, must reconcile between actual accomplisments and what their dreams were 8. Later Life - Integrity vs. Despair, over 60, coming to terms with one's life.

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Jane Loevinger

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developed a theory of personality and ego development that examines interpersonal, cognitive, moral development across the lifespan. people have a sequenial progression through nine possible stages. Her view holds that growth and development relate to how individuals respond to new information or environmental interactions.

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Loevinger nine stages

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1. Presocial 2. Impulsive 3. Self-protective 4. Conformist 5. Self-aware 6. Conscientious 7. Individualistic 8. Autonomous 9. Integrated

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Sociocultural theories

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emphasize people's environments interactions and systems in which they are embedded these theories continue to lean toward viewing clients in context and conceptualizing clients in dynamic, interactional terms.

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Lev Vygostky

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Zone of Proximal Development: the difference between what an infant can of by themselves and what they can do with help of a parent. Scaffolding: the process that helps children move from a position of an inability to complete tasks to a position where they can eventually do those tasks alone. Private Speech: individual talks allowed to them selves and no on else.

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Murray Bowen

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Multigenerational family systems: previous generations greatly affect the development of future generations egos. Differentiation of self: process that includes separating oneself from one's family of origin and distinguishing ones emotions from ones cognitions. don't want to have a fusion of members together.

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Vygotsky's Sociocultural Development

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Emphasizes sociocultural influences on child development Focuses on how adults convey aspects of their culture to children Views development as an "apprenticeship"

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Vygotsky Major tenets

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Major Theoretical Tenants 1. Children construct knowledge Knowledge is co-constructed 2. Learning can lead development - Zone of proximal development- the level between independent performance and assisted performance - Level of independent performance - the best a child can do on his/her own - Level of assisted performance - level of performance the child is capable of attaining only with assistance 3. Development cannot be separated from its social context - Impact on how we think and what we think - Thinking, perception and memory and the internal and external tools we create are constructed in a social context - Development of internal mental tools require assistance from adults 4. Language plays a central role in mental development. Language is a mechanism for thinking - the most important mental tool

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Lower functions vs higher functions

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lower functions: reactive attention, associative memory, sensorimotor thought higher functions: selective attention, deliberate memory, symbolic thought

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Family lifecycle development: betty carter, monica McGoldrick

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Genograms - pictorial, symbolic representations of the structure and processes of multiple generations in a family system families navigate developmental and unexpected transitions over time by completing specific tasks. the tasks can be universal like attachment or more culturally specific like survival skills.

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Family Lifecycle stages

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1. Leaving home/Young adulthood 2. Joining of families/New Couple 3. Childbirth/Childbearing 4. Middle marriage/Families with adolescents 5. Launching children/Moving on 6. Later life

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Bronfenbrenner: Ecological theory of development

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All aspects of human development are interconnected No single aspect can adequately explain development Focus on environmental factors Consider all factors - environmental, family, political, social, and how they interact

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Bronfenbrenner's systems

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Microsystem People and objects in the immediate environment Mesosystem Influences of microsystems on each other Exosystem Social, environmental, governmental forces Macrosystem Subcultures &cultures in which the other 3 systems are embedded Chronosystem Environmental events, transitions and sociohistorical circumstances

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Multicultural theories of development

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stage models. the idea is that an individual can progress to the next stage over time depending on a variety of internal and external experiences.

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White racial identity development

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for white race need to understand their own privledge. abadoning racism and finding a positive identity 1. Contact: unaware of privileges and think that race does not matter 2. Disintegration: questioning beliefs causes anxiety 3. Reintegration: may actively or passively believe in white superiority. racial identity is acknowledge 4. Pseudoindependence: this is the beginning of getting a positive identity. emphasis on intellectual understanding 5. Immersion/emersion: replace old stereotypes with new information. the goal shifts from changing minorities to changing whites. 6. Autonomy: welcome cross racial interactions and can acknowledge racism.

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Black Racial Identity development (cross)

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1. Preencounter: whites are primary reference group living a white life style 2. Encounter: an event helps them look at racial identity. new view inconsistent with old ones 3. Immersion/emersion: immersion means rejecting whiteness and embracing blackness. emersion represents lessening of rigidity 4. Internalization: individuals are secure in their identities and open to those who are different 5. Internalization-commitment: increase levels of social and political commitment against wrong doings

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Biracial identity development

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1. Personal identity: relates self esteem with reference groups 2. Choice of group categorization: the push to identify with a particular group 3. Enmeshment/denial: often yields confustion about choosing a group to belong to 4. Appreciation: learning about multiple identities 5. Integration

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Multiple heritage identity development

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Integrates many facets of a person's identity including socioeconomic status, gender, religion, language, national origin, and sexual identity

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Biological theories on development

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integrate physiology and biological aspects of development. behavior and mental processes can be explained by examining human physiology and anatomy.

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Darwin

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theory of evolution based on the idea that all living species have descended over time from common ancestry. natural selection refers to differential reproduction or the process whereby certain traits or characteristics of a species that are more adaptable to the environment survive. he had some of the first organized studies of human development.

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Ethological theory

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Ethology - the study of the adaptive and evolutionary basis of animal behavior Species have inborn, instinctual responses shared by all members of the species to promote their survival

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Attachment theory

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an emotional connection with important people in your life. leads to a sense of security. bowlby and ainsworth

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John Bowlby

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infants are pre adapted to respond to their care giver and to exhibit behaviors that enhance the infants chances of survival. the pre adapted attachment to the caregiver promotes close proximity and therefore safety for the child. will effect future relationships.

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Bowlby 4 phases of infant attachment

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Phase 1: Non-focused responsiveness- birth to 3 mon. they make contact with anyone they see. this will get people's attention so they maintain contact with the child Phase 2: Discriminating attention- 3 to 6mon. focusing to fewer people Phase 3: Proximity-seeking behavior, (6 to 24mon) the infant seeks out proximity to the caregiver when exploring Phase 4: Reciprocal relationship 24 mon and beyond, more willing to separate from parents. begins to develop an internal model of the attachment relationship.

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sensitive period

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between 6 to 24 mon when the attachment relationship will develop more readily. after this period the attachment relationships can form but more difficulty.

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Mary Ainsworth and Strange Situation test

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Secure attachment: they miss the parent but can explore without the mother there. when mother comes back the child is happy then returns to play shows a preference for the mother Insecure: Anxious-avoidant attachment: does not cry at separation but continues to play, actively avoids and ignores mom, no preference for mom over stranger Insecure: Anxious-ambivalent attachment: preoccupied with the parent little exploration and is wary of the stranger. seeks and resists the mother. resits contact with stranger Insecure: Disorganized-disoriented attachment: confused with parent the child may cry unexpectedly or make weird postures.

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Maturation theory

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human development is biological and that development happens automatically and in a predictable sequential stages with few individual differences. Arnold Gesell believed that heredity was largely responsible for child development and that parental influence had limited impact on the development of the kid. children mature following an inherited timetable and develop skills and abilities in a preordained sequence.

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Gesell described developmental milestones in areas of...

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Motor characteristics Personal hygiene Emotional expression Fears and dreams Self and sex Interpersonal relations Play and pastimes School life Ethical sense Philosophic outlook

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Granville Stanely Hall

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Main contribution: Each developmental stage lays the foundation for future stages, therefore, it is counterproductive to push a child ahead of any one developmental stage.

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Learning theories

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development can be described in terms of behaviors learned through interactions with the environment. stress the role of external influences on behavior. all behaviors is learned and the basic principles of learning are the same regardless of who is learning and what they are learning.

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Classical Conditioning

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Ivan Pavlov Trained dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell after the bell was repeatedly presented to the dog immediately before the meat powder Unconditioned Response Unconditioned Stimulus Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response neutral stimulus John Watson "Little Albert"

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Thorndike's law of effect

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Studied cats learning to escape from puzzle boxes Learning results from associating Stimuli (S) and Responses (R) Cats learned to escape from the puzzle box by associating the pressing of a lever (S) with the door opening (R) These associations can be strengthened or weakened depending on the nature and frequency of the S-R pairing

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Behaviorism and Operant conditioning (BF Skinner)

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The consequences of a behavior determine whether it will be repeated A positive or negative reinforcement increases the chance that a behavior will be repeated A punishment decreases the chance that a behavior will be repeated

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Skinner

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Reinforcements - consequences that strengthen or increase the frequency of the behavior they follow Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Punishments - adverse events that decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow Positive Punishment: presentation of adverse event Negative Punishment: removal of pleasant thing Reinforcement Schedules: Fixed Ratio fixed interval Variable Ratio Variable Interval

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Reinforcement schedule

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refer to how and when reinforcements are applied can be applied every time the behavior happens (continuous schedule) or they can be applied on an irregular or partial basis (variable schedule)

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Fixed ratio

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applying the reinforcement after a specific number of behaviors.

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fixed interval

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applying the reinforcement after a specific amount of time.

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variable ratio

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reinforcements are given following a variable number of responses

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variable intervals

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distributed following a variable amount of time.

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Social Learning Theory- bandura

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Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura - "Bobo doll" experiment Four conditions for social learning: 1. Attention 2. Retention 3. Reproduction 4. Motivation Reciprocal determinism: relationship between the individual and the environment.

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Bandura principles

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Social Learning Theory (Bandura) Observational learning, or modeling People learn by watching others Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is seen as smart, popular, or talented Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is rewarded for the behavior Self efficacy An individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997).

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Psychoanalytic learning theory

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Dollard and Miller Drive, cue, response, and reinforcement combine to form the foundation of learning Drive - a need that impels people to action Cue - determines when, where, and how people will behave Response - behaviors Reinforcements - consequences of people's behaviors Four types of conflict: conflict related to ones inability to respond to the drive that has been triggered 1. Approach-avoidance conflict: when the same behavior produces both these feelings 2. Avoidance-avoidance conflict: forced to choose between two equally bad options 3. Approach-approach conflict: two good things 4. Double approach-avoidance conflict: two choices that have desirable and undesirable

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