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Nervous system

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An extensive network of specialized cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body.

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Neuroscience

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A branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and function of neurons, nerves and nervous tissue.

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Biological psychology (or Behavioral neuroscience)

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Branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning.

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Neuron

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The basic cell that makes up the nervous system and that receives and sends messages within that system.

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Dendrites

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Branchlike structures that receive messages from other neurons.

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Soma

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The cell body of the neuron responsible for maintaining the life of the cell.

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Axon

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Tubelike structure that carries the neural message to other cells.

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Glial cells

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Cells that provide support for the neurons to grow on and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to coat axons, clean up waste products and dead neurons, influence information processing, and, during prenatal development, influence the generation of new neurons.

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Myelin

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Fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse.

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Nerves

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Bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together through the body.

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Diffusion

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Process of molecules moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

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Resting potential

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The state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse.

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Action potential

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The release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon.

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All-or-none

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Referring to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.

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Synaptic knob

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Rounded areas on the end of the axon terminals.

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Axon terminals

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Branches at the end of the axon.

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Synaptic vesicles

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Saclike structures found inside the synaptic knob containing chemicals.

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Neurotransmitter

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Chemical found in the synaptic vesicles that, when released, has an effect on the next cell.

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Synapse (synaptic gap)

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Microscopic fluid-filled space between the synaptic knob of one cell and the dendrites or surface of the next cell.

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Receptor sites

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3-dimensional proteins on the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters.

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Excitatory synapse

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Synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire.

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Inhibitory synapse

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Synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing.

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Antagonists

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Chemical substances that block or reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters.

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Agonists

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Chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell.

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Reuptake

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Process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles.

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Enzymatic degradation

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Process by which structure of neurotransmitter is altered so it can no longer act on a receptor.

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Central nervous system (CNS)

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Part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

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Spinal cord

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A long bundle of neurons that carries messages between the body and the brain and is responsible for very fast, lifesaving reflexes.

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Afferent (sensory) neuron

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A neuron that carries information from the senses to the central nervous system.

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Efferent (motor) neuron

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A neuron that carries messages from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body.

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Interneuron

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A neuron found in the center of the spinal cord that receives information from the afferent neurons and sends command to the muscles through the efferent neurons. Also make up the bulk of the neurons in the brain.

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Reflex arc

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The connection of the afferent neurons to the interneurons to the efferent neuron, resulting in a reflex action.

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Neuroplasticity

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The ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma.

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Stem cells

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Special cells found in all the tissues of the body that are capable of becoming other cell types when those cells need to be replaced due to damage or wear and tear.

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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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All nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal cord but that run through the body itself.

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Somatic nervous system

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Division of the PNS consisting of nerves that carry information from the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the voluntary muscles of the body.

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Autonomic Nervous system (ANS)

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Division of the PNS consisting of nerves that control all of the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands.

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Sensory pathway

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Nerves coming form the sensory organs to the CNS consisting of afferent neurons.

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Motor pathway

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Nerves coming from the CNS to the voluntary muscles, consisting of efferent neurons.

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Sympathetic division (fight-or-flight system)

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Part of the ANS that is responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal.

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Parasympathetic division

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Part of the ANS that restores the body to normal functioning after arousal and is responsible of the organs and glands.

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Endocrine glands

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Glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.

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Hormones

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Chemicals released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands.

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Pituitary gland

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Gland located in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and influences all other hormone-secreting glands (also known as the master gland).

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Pineal gland

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Endocrine gland located near the base of the cerebrum; secretes melatonin.

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Thyroid gland

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Endocrine gland found in the neck; regulates metabolism.

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Pancreas

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Endocrine gland; controls the levels of sugar in the blood.

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Gonads

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Sex glands; secrete hormones that regulate sexual development and behavior as well as reproduction.

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Ovaries

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The female gonads.

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Testes

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The male gonads.

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Adrenal glands

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Endocrine glands located on top of each kidney that secrete over 30 different hormones to deal with stress, regulate salt intake, and provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting the sexual changes that occur during adolescence.

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Deep lesioning

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Insertion of a thin, insulated wire into the brain through which an electrical current is sent that destroys the brain cells at the tip of the wire.

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Computed tomography (CT)

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Brain-imaging method using computer-controlled X-rays of the brain.

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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

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Brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain.

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Electroencephalograph

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Machine designed to record the electroencephalogram.

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Electroencephalogram (EEG)

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A recording of the electrical activity of large groups of cortical neurons just below the skull, most often using scalp electrodes.

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Positron emission tomography

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Brain-imaging method in which a radioactive sugar is injected into the subject and a computer compiles a color-coded image of the activity of the brain.

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Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)

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Neuroimaging method that is similar to PET but uses a different radioactive tracer and can be used to examine brain blood flow.

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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

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MRI-based brain-imaging method that allows for functional examination of brain areas through changes in brain oxygenation.

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Medulla

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The fist large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the brain, which is responsible for life-sustaining, swallowing, and heart rate.

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Pons

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The larger swelling above the medulla that connects the top of the brain to the bottom and that plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left-right body coordination, and arousal.

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Reticular formation (RF)

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An area of neurons running through the middle of the medulla and the pons and slightly beyond that is responsible for general attention, alertness, and arousal.

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Cerebellum

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Part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement.

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Limbic system

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A group of several brain structures located under the cortex and involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation.

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Thalamus

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Part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain, this structure relays sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex and processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper area.

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Olfactory bulbs

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Two bulb-like projections just under the front of the brain that receive information from the receptors in the nose.

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Hypothalamus

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Small structure in the brain located below the thalamus and directly above the pituitary gland, responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex.

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Hippocampus

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Curved structure located within each temporal lobe, responsible for the formation of long-term memories and the storage of memory for location of objects.

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Amygdala

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Brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory of fear.

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Cortex

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Outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input.

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Cerebral hemispheres

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The two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain.

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Corpus callosum

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Thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

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Occipital lobe

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Section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing the visual centers of the brain.

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Parietal lobes

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Sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for touch, taste, and temperature sensations.

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Somatosensory cortex

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Area of neurons running down the front of the parietal lobes responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, body position, and possibly taste.

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Temporal lobes

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Areas of the cortex located just behind the temples containing the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech

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Frontal lobes

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Areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain, responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech.

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Motor cortex

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Section of the frontal lobe located at the back responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous system.

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Mirror neurons

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Neurons that fire when a animal or person performs an action and also when an animal or person observes that same action being performed by another.

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Association areas

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Areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing.

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Broca's aphasia

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Condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly.

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Wernicke's aphasia

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Condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language

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Spatial neglect

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Condition produced by damage to the association areas of the right hemisphere resulting in an inability to recognize objects or body parts in the left visual field.

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Cerebrum

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The upper part of the brain consisting of the two hemispheres and the structures that connect them.

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