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Personality

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The unique and relatively stable ways in which people think, feel, and behavior

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Character

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Value judgements made about a person's moral and ethical behavior

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Termperment

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The enduring characteristics with which each person is born

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Four perspectives in study of personality

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- Psychodynamic perspective - Behaviorist perspective - Humanistic perspective - Trait perspective

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Sigmund Freud

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- Founder of psychodynamic movement - Europe during the Victorian age - Men cannot control their animal desires - Believes mistresses should be there for sexual comfort - Women shouldn't have sexual desires

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Preconscious mind

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Level of the mind in which information is available but not currently conscious

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Conscious mind

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Level of the mind that is aware of immediate surroundings and perceptions

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Unconscious mind

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Level of the mind in which thoughts, feelings, memories, and other information that are not easily or voluntarily brought into consciousness are kept - Can be revealed in dreams and Freudian slips of the tongue

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Id (Freud's theory)

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Part of the personality present at birth; completely unconscious - Libido: the instinctual energy that may come into conflict with the demands of a society's standards of behavior - Pleasure principle: principle by which the id functions; the immediate satisfaction of needs without regard for the consequences

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Ego (Freud's theory)

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Part of the personality that develops out of a need to deal with reality; mostly conscious, rational, and logical - Reality principle: Principle by which the ego functions; the satisfaction of the demands of the id only when negative consequences will not result

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Superego (Freud's theory)

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Part of the personality that acts as a moral center - Ego ideal: part of the superego that contains the standards for moral behavior - Conscience: part of the superego that produces pride or guilt, depending on how well behavior matches or does not match the ego ideal

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Psychological defense mechanisms

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Unconscious distortions of a person's perception of reality that reduce stress and anxiety

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Denial

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The person refuses to acknowledge a threatening situation

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Repression

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The person refuses to consciously remember a threatening or unacceptable event, instead pushing those events into the unconscious mind

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Rationalization

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The person invents acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior

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Projection

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Unacceptable or threatening impulses or feelings are seen as originating with someone else, usually the target of the impulses or feelings

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Reaction formation

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The person forms an emotional or behavioral reaction opposite to the way he or she really feels in order to keep those true feelings hidden from self and others

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Displacement

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Redirecting feelings from a threatening target to a less threatening one

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Regression

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The person falls back on childlike patterns of responding in reaction to stressful situations

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Identification

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The person tries to become like someone else to deal with anxiety

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Compensation (substitution)

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The person makes up for deficiencies in one area by becoming superior in another area

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Sublimation

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Channeling socially unacceptable impulses and urges into socially acceptable behavior

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Fixation

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If the person does not fully resolve the conflict in a particular psychosexual stage, it will result in personality traits and behaviors associated with that earlier stage

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Psychosexual stages

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Five stages of personality development proposed by Freud and tied to the sexual development of the child

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Oral stage

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- First stage - Occurring in the first year of life - Mouth is the erogenous zone - Weaning is the primary conflict - Id dominated

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Anal stage

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- Second stage - Occurring between 1-3 years of age - Ergogenous zone - Toilet training is the source of conflict - Ego develops

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Anal expulsive personality

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A person is fixated in the anal stage who is messy, destructive, and hostile

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Anal retentive personality

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A person is fixated in the anal stage who is neat, fussy, stingy, and stubborn

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Phallic stage

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- Third stage - 3-6 years of age - Discovers sexual feelings - Superego develops

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Oedipus complex

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Situation occurring in the phallic stage in which a child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent and jealousy of the same-sex parent - Electra complex is the same but for girls

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Latency stage

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- Fourth stage - School years - Sexual feelings are repressed during development

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Genital stage

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During and after puberty, sexual feelings reawaken with appropriate targets

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Neo-freudians

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Followers of Freud who developed their own competing theories of psychoanalysis

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Jung (Neo-Freudians)

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Developed a theory including both a personal & collective unconscious - Personal unconscious: Jung's name for the unconscious mind as described by Freud - Collective unconscious: the memories shared by all members of the human species - Archetypes: collective, universal human memories

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Adler (Neo-Freudians)

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Proposed that feelings of inferiority are the driving force behind personality Developed birth order theory - Firstborn: feel inferior to younger children who receive attention; become overachievers - Middle child: feel superior to dethroned older children, as well as younger children; tend to be very competitive - Younger children: Feel inferior because they don't have the freedom or responsibility of older children

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Horney (Neo-Freudians)

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Developed a theory based on basic anxiety; rejected the concept of penis envy -Basic anxiety: anxiety created when a child is born into the bigger and more powerful world of older children and adults - Neurotic personalities: The result of less-secure upbringings and paired with maladaptive ways of dealing with realtionships

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Erikson (Neo-Freudians)

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Developed a theory based on social rather than sexual relationships, covering the entire life span

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Current modern psychoanalytic research supports:

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- Defense mechanisms - The concept of an unconscious mind that can influence conscious behavior

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Behaviorists define personality as...

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A set of learned responses or habits - Habit: well-learned response that has become automatic

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Social cognitive learning theorists emphasize the importance of:

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- The influences of other people's behavior - The influence of a person's own expectancies on learning

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Social cognitive view

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Learning theory that includes cognitive processes such as anticipating, judging, memory, and imitation of models

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Reciprocal determinism

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Bandura's explanation of how factors of environment, personal characteristics, and behavior can interact to determine future behavior

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Self-efficacy

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An individual's perception of how effective a behavior will be in any particular circumstance - Not the same as self-esteem

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Rotter's social learning theory

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- Locus of control - Expectancy

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Humanistic perspective

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The "third force" in psychology - Focuses on those aspects of personality that make people uniquely human, such as subjective feelings and freedom of choice - Developed as a reaction against the negativity of psychoanalysis and the deterministic nature of behaviorism

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Self-actualizing tendency

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The striving to fulfill one's innate capacities and capabilities

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Self-cocncept

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The image of oneself that develops from interactions with import, significant people in one's life - Self-archetype that works with the ago to manage other archetypes and balance the personality

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Real self

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One's perception of actual characteristics, traits, and abilites

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Ideal self

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One's perception of whom one should be or would like to be

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Positive regard

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Warmth, affection, love, and respect that come from significant others in one's life - Unconditional positive regard: positive regard that is given without conditions or strings attached - Conditional positive regard: positive regard that is given only when the person is doing what the providers of positive regard wish

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Fully functioning person

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A person who is in touch with and trusting of the deepest, innermost urges and feelings

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Current thought on humanistic perspective

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- Picture is a little too rosy - Very difficult to test scientifically - Connection to "positive psychology"

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Trait theories

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Theories that endeavor to describe the characteristics that make up human personality in an effort to predict future behavior - Trait: A consistent, enduring way of thinking, feeling, or behaving

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Surface traits

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Aspects of personality that can easily be seen by other people in the outward actions of a person

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Source traits

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The more basic traits that underlie the surface traits, forming the core of personality - Ex: introversion

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Five-factor model (Big five)

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Describes five basic trait dimensions 1. *Openness*: willingness to try new things and be open to new experiences 2. *Conscientiousness*: the care a person gives to organization and thoughtfulness of others; dependability 3. *Extraversion*: one's need to be with other people - Extraverts: people who are outgoing and sociable - Introverts: people who prefer solitude and dislike being the center of attention 4. *Agreeableness*: the emotional style of a person that may range from easygoing, friendly, and likeable to grumpy, crabby, and unpleasant 5. *Neuroticism*: degree of emotional instability or stability

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Trait-situation interaction

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The particular circumstances of any given situation will influence the way in which a trait is expressed

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Behavioral genetics

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The study of the relationship between heredity and personality - twin and adoption studies have found support for a genetic influence on many personality traits

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Heritability

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How much some trait within a population can be attributed to genetic influences, and the extent individuals genetic variation impacts differences in observed behavior

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James Arthur Springer and James Edward Lewis

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Otherwise known as the "Jim" twins were separated shortly after birth and reunited at age thirty-nine; they exhibited many similarities in personality and personal habits

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Four basic dimensions of personality along which cultures may vary

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- Individualism/collectivism - Power distance - Masculinity/femininity - Uncertainty avoidance

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Interview

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Personality assessment in which the professional asks questions of the client and allows the client to answer, either in a structured or unstructured fashion

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Halo effect

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Tendency of an interviewer to allow positive characteristics of a client to influence the assessments of the client's behavior and statements

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Projective tests

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Personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind

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Rorschach inkblot test

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Projective test that uses ten inkblots as the ambiguous stimuli

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Thematic apperception test (TAT)

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Projective test that uses twenty pictures of people in ambiguous situations as the visual stimuli

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Problems with projective tests: subjective

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Concepts and impressions that are only valid within a particular person's perception and may be influenced by biases, prejudice, and personal experience

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Direct observation

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The professional observes the client engaged in ordinary, day-to-day behavior in either a clinical or natural setting

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Rating scale

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A numerical value is assigned to a specific behavior that is listed in the scale

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Frequency count

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Assessment in which the frequency of a particular behavior is counted

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Personality inventory

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Paper and pencil or computerized test that consists of statements that require a specific, standardized response from the person taking the test - NEO-PI: based on the five-factor model - Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: based on Jung's theory of personality types - MMPI-2 - designed to detect abnormal behavior or thinking patterns in personality

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