Drugs and Behavior Chapter 2 – Flashcards
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When did psychoactive substance use start?
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* Indications of psychoactive substance use date back to the beginnings of recorded history and revolve around he use of alcohol and plants with psychoactive properties. * Alcohol was probably discovered via accidental fermentation (beer and huckleberry wine used early as 6400 BC).
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Fermentation
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a combustive process in which yeasts interact with the sugars in plants such as grapes, grains, and fruits to produce an enzyme that converts the sugar into alcohol.
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Opium Poppy
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a plant cultivated for centuries, primarily in Eurasia, for opium a narcotic that acts as a central nervous system depressant; "joy plant" in the Asian Minor 5000 BC.
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Cannabis Sativa
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the Indian hemp plant popularly known as marijuana; its resin, flowering tops, leaves, and stem contain the plant's psychoactive substances; 2700 BC in China brewed as tea.
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Hashish
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a drug produced from the resin that covers the flowers of the cannabis hemp plant; the resin generally contains a greater concentration of the drug's psychoactive properties.
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Which drugs were Stone Age people familiar with and why did they use them?
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Stone Age people are thought to have been familiar with opium, hashish, and cocaine, and to have used these drugs to produce altered states of consciousness (typically in a religious context) or to prepare themselves for battle.
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What drug was used in ancient Central and South America?
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Chewing coca leaves (one way to ingest cocaine) is recorded among Indian burial sites in Central and South America as far back as 2500 BC.
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What drugs did the Europeans introduce to the new world?
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The Europeans brought coffee beans to new world which led to the world-leading supplier of coffee, South America. Also brought distilled alcoholic beverages to the Americas and cannabis to Chile in 1545.
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What drugs did the New World introduce to Europe?
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The predominate psychoactive substances brought to Europe from the Americas were cocaine (South America), various hallucinogens (Central America), and tobacco (North America), and peyote.
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What drugs did Asia introduce to Europe?
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The Crusades and the expeditions of Marco Polo exposed Europeans to the drugs (opium and hashish) that were popular in Asian cultures.
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Were there a lot of drug restrictions prior to the 20th century?
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* There were relatively few restrictions on drug availability or drug use prior to the beginning of the 20th century (except for Islamic law's edict on alcohol consumption). * Occasional efforts were made to decrease or eliminate certain substances, but these efforts tended to be short-lived or ineffective.
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The Opium Wars
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* Between China and Great Britain in the mid-19th century -- Opium Wars. * By the mid-1800s, millions of Chinese men had become addicted to opium. Most of the opium used in China was cultivated in India and brought to China by British traders. * Chinese officials passed a variety of laws to control or eliminate opium imports, but none had the desired effect of reducing opium use or the prevalence of addiction. * The British were unwilling to curtail the trade of opium into China, in part for financial reasons and in part because they did not witness such a degree of addiction among users in England (where opium was widely used in medicine). * Relations reached crisis level in 1839, when the Chinese government destroyed large shipments of opium being brought to China by British and American traders. Thus began the first Opium War. * The British won the conflict and, as part of the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, received rights to the port of Hong Kong (rights that ended in 1997) as well as reimbursement for the shippers who lost their opium cargo. * The opium trade continued until 1856, when the Treaty of Tientsin mandated that China would continue to import opium but could impose heavy taxes. * Not until the beginning of the 20th century was this trade reduced and eventually terminated, dovetailing with a growing international recognition of narcotic drug abuse
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Do governments only act to restrict drug use/availability?
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No -- Britain fought the Opium Wars against China to keep drug trade open and flourishing.
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Narcotic
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a central nervous system depressant that contains sedative and pain-relieving compounds.
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Was it easy to obtain drugs in the US during the 1800s?
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* Into the mid-1800s, there were very few restrictions placed on drug use. * Drugs such as opium, marijuana, heroin (at the end of the century), and cocaine were easy to obtain without prescription, often at grocery stores or through mail order.
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Morphine
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* a derivative of opium best known as a potent pain-relieving medication. * Commonly used, especially during and after the Civil War, and opium, cocaine, and morphine could be obtained in a variety of patent medicines readily available in stores.
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Patent Medicines
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products that were sold, most often in the 19th century, as medicines that would cure a host of illnesses and diseases.
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Laudanum
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Opium was frequently taken in liquid form in mixtures such as laudanum (which contained 1 grain of opium to 25 drops of alcohol) and one of its common uses was in calming and quieting babies!
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Give a brief history of the beginnings of morphine.
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* Morphine, the active agent in opium, was isolated in 1806. * Named after Morpheus, the god of sleep and dreams, and was used widely during and after the Civil War, its administration greatly facilitated by the introduction of the hypodermic needle in the late 1840s. * The widespread use of morphine during the Civil War is generally considered responsible for large numbers of soldiers developing the "soldier's disease" - morphine addiction. * The smoking of opium was introduced into the US by Chinese laborers and became widespread practice by mid-1800s, especially West Coast. * Increased recognition by medical experts and others of the addictive nature of opium poppy products - opium, morphine, and heroin - triggered efforts to control their use and availability.
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Give a brie history of marijuana use in the US from 1800s until now.
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* Marijuana also has a long history of use. * In the 1800s, physicians used liquid extracts of the Cannabis sativa plant as a general all-purpose medication. * Its non-medical use was much wider in the 1920s, in response to the alcohol Prohibition. * The use of marijuana was fairly constant in the '30s through the '50s but was generally limited to urban area and to the rural areas in which it was grown and harvested. * In the 1960s, its popularity soared remained strong. * Coinciding with this popularity have been efforts to decriminalize or legitimitize marijuana sale and use. * Organizations include: the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) and the Drug Policy Alliance. * Proposition 215 (1996), California was the first state to legalize medical marijuana. * 2013 - medical marijuana was legal in 18 states * 2012 - CO and WA regulating, taxing, and controlling marijuana in a manner similar to that in place for alcohol.
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Give a brief history of cocaine use in the US from the 1800s until now.
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* Cocaine, a drug whose popularity has fluctuated among drug users in this country. * Cocaine was used in various tonics and patent medicines in the late 1800s and early 1900s, despite concerns over negative effects associated with its extended use. * Not until 1914 was cocaine brought under strict legal controls and penalties. * Its use was apparently limited in the US until the 1960s. * In the late 1960s and up to now, it has been in much wider use in various forms. * Crack cocaine (a free-based form of cocaine made by cooking cocaine powder, water, and baking soda until it forms a solid) first appeared in large cities in the mid-1980s. * Experts believe that cocaine (along with heroin and methamphetamine) will be a drug of choice for many drug users in upcoming years.
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Amphetamines
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central nervous system stimulants that act like naturally occurring adrenaline.
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Give a brief history of amphetamines in the US from the 1930s until now.
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* Widely used to treat depression in the 1930s. * Also given to soldiers in WWII in the belief that the drug would enhance alertness. * Obtaining amphetamines through medical outlets was not particularly difficult. * As concern arose over the dangers inherent in the continued use of these drugs, restrictions on their availability became much tighter --> set the stage for a much greater production and distribution of amphetamines through illicit channels. * In the 1960s & 1970s, amphetamines went through another period of heavy use when they were over prescribed for weight control. * The abuse of these drugs remains a significant problem today especially when taken intravenously.
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What two substances was the 1950s known for?
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1950s = era for two central substances -- minor tranquilizers (esp popular for psychiatric drugs) and solvent inhaling.
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Solvent
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a substance, usually a liquid or gas, that contains one or more intoxicating components; examples are glue, gasoline, and nonstick-frying pan sprays.
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Why are solvents dangerous?
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* The problem with solvents was marked in the early 1960s, with solvent inhaling causing deaths in deaths and leading hobby glue producers to remove the two most toxic solvents - benzene and carbon tetrachloride - from their products. * "Sudden Sniffing Death Syndrome" -- typically teen boys; use aerosol products and then dive into a pool because they had heard that the underwater pressure intensifies the rush; leads to this "syndrome" where they have a heart attack and drown.
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LSD
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a psychoactive substance that was known as the drug of the 1960s LSD was banned in 1967 and its use waned considerably until a recent resurgence in its popularity, particularly in the context of the "rave" culture.
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Timothy Leary
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Harvard psychologist, began to expound on what he found to be its mind-altering advantages. * Harvard psychologist * Experimented with hallucinogenic substances on human subjects (LSD) * Thought it was a portal into the unconscious psyche * Unscientific approach and usage of these substances led to his dismissal from Harvard
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Give a brief history of heroin use in the US from the 1800s until now.
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* First synthesized in the late 1890s and it has been available for use since the early 1900s. * Extent has been greater among lower and higher SES * During the Vietnam War, high incidence of heroin use among US soldiers in Vietnam was a concern, but soldiers who used the drug overseas did ot plan on using when they returned home. * Heroin use increasing recently -- very cheap and easily obtained * Levels of purity in modern heroin is much higher than in the past * Today fewer users are injecting the drug, typically snort or smoke it (or mixing it with crack and smoking it) * Historically was a drug used by adults -- now teens are experimenting with it.
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Bath Salts
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a psychoactive "designer drug" that is synthesized from various amphetamine-like chemicals and can be inhaled, swallowed, smoked, or injected.
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Synthetic Marijuana
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a psychoactive "designer drug" comprised of natural plants that are sprayed with synthetic chemicals that mimic the effects of cannabis when consumed.
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How are medical science and drug use related?
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* Many of the drugs described were used for medicinal purposed at one time or another. * Medical science only gradually became the well-respected institution we know today -- even in the 20th century, folk cures, potions, and so-called patent medicines were freely available and widely used. * In any event, keeping the medical and non-medical uses of drugs separate is impossible.
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What is the main way that society established formal guidelines for drug use?
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Legislation. * Legislation is the main way society establishes formal guidelines for drug use -- such legislation reflects a society's beliefs about drugs. * Laws typically establish restrictions or prohibit the manufacture, importation, sale, or possession of the substance under evaluation.
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Is drug use a crime?
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NO. actual drug use in the United States, and in other countries as well, is not a crime under federal law, nor is it a crime to be a drug addict or alcoholic.
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True/False The more restrictive the laws the more effective they are.
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FALSE * Drug laws have limited effectiveness in reducing overall illicit drug availability and use. * More restrictive the laws, less effective they are.
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What was the last industrialized nation to formally implement drug legislation?
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The United States.
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The San Francisco Ordinance (1875)
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opium dens were banned (but NOT the smoking of opium); conviction for operating or frequenting an opium den carried a fine of $50 to $500 and/or jail sentence of 10 days to 6 months; impact was not great - the larger and more obvious opium dens closed but the number of smaller opium dens increased -- effect was greater in the sense of setting the stage for drug regulation in other parts of the country.
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What led to The San Francisco Ordinance of 1875?
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* The only notable law regarding drug use in the 19th century -- racial control * Many Chinese laborers entered country in mid-1800s to meet demand of expanding west - when construction was over they went back to San Francisco and frequented opium-dens (places where people would smoke opium) * Rumors circulated that they were places of evil/sinister and that young white women were at risk for unknowingly heading down dangerous paths towards disrepute and drug addiction.
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When did Congress pass a law banning the importation of opium for smoking?
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1909.
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Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)
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* designed to control opiate addiction, legislated that producers of medicines must indicate on the packaging the amount of drug contained in their products; focused on opium, morphine, and heroin, but also mandated the accurate labeling of products that contain alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine. * Didn't ban opiates so they didn't stop current addicts (not effective) but possibly stopped new addicts.
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Harrison Narcotics Tax Act (1914)
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* strictly regulated, but did not prohibit, the legal supply of certain drugs, particularly the opiates; the law stated marketing and prescribing narcotics only "in the course of his professional practice"; although the confusion of this act's intent led to more restrictions on prescribing and supplying opiates, the act had little effect on opiate abuse (even when subsequent amendments mandated more severe penalties for possession). * The act did not restrict manufacturers of patent medicines, with the exception that their preparations could "not contain more than two grains of opium, or more than one fourth a grain of morphine, or more than one eighth of a grain of heroin...in one avoidupois ounce." * Inaccurately included cocaine as a narcotic. * One treatment-related result of the act was that treatment centers for addicts began to open in some of the larger cities.
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What prompted Congress to pass the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act?
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This law was passed not in response to domestic demand but rather as a consequence of the United States signing the Hague Convention of 1912, an international agreement that directed signing nations to regulate opium traffic within their respective countries.
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What was the negative and unintended consequence of the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act?
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Brecher argued that the law served to shift opium and morphine addicts to heroin (which became easier to obtain on the black market) and overall to double the number of addicts in the United States.
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Alcohol Prohibition (1920)
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prohibited the production, sale, transportation, and importing of alcohol in any part of the US; only exception was that alcoholic beverages kept in the home, such as naturally fermented hard cider, could be consumed but not offered for sale. * Eighteenth Amendment of the Constitution * Victory for Anti-Saloon League and the Women's Christian Temperance Union.
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National Prohibition Act
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subsequently passed after eighteenth -- provided mean to investigate and punish violators of the Eighteenth Amendment -- defined an "intoxicating beverage" as one containing more than 0.5% alcohol.
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Did the 18th amendment succeed?
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* Overturned 13 years later by the Twenty-first Amendment -- overall failed. * Did succeed in some ways: * Rate of drinking was reduced * Decreased death rates attributable to liver cirrhosis * Decreased admission rates to state hospitals for treatment of alcoholism * Decreased arrest rates for alcohol-related offenses * Greatest alcohol consumption decrease was among working people * Criticized that it was a biased law
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What was an unintended consequence of Prohibition?
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* Variety of undesired consequences were associated with binge drinking: * Problems (increasing) -- * Organized crime and smuggling * Disrespect for the law * Speakeasy: a slang expressions used to describe a saloon operating without license; popularly used during prohibition. * Emphasis on drinking just to drink * Drinking by women * Caffeine intake soared * Consumption of distilled spirits * Consumption of other substances (primarily marijuana
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Federal Bureau of Narcotics
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Now the DEA legislative action in 1930 provided independent status for narcotic control agents through FBN.
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Marijuana Tax Act of 1937
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* this measure did not ban marijuana but instead required authorized producers, manufacturers, importers, and dispensers of the drug to register and pay an annual license fee -- only nonmedical possession or sale of marijuana was outlawed. * Legislative actions regarding marijuana use gradually gre more restrictive and provided greater penalties until the decriminalization movement began in latter part of the 1970s. Spearheaded by Harry J. Anslinger.
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What are two noteworthy trends in post-prohibition legislation?
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* Increased attention to nonnarcotic drug use, whereby stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogenic substances became regulated under legislation such as the Drug Abuse Control Amendment of 1965. * Change in federal legislation was a shifting of at least some attention to the treatment of drug abuse through such measures as the Community Mental Health Centers Act of 1963 and the Narcotic Addicts Rehabilitation Act of 1966.
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Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act (1970)
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the basis for drug regulation in the United States today; also called the Controlled Substances Act. * Drug classification for law enforcement purposes are rooted in the 1970 Controlled Substances Act * Classified by their medical use, their potential for abuse, and their likelihood for producing dependence. * NOT classified by their pharmacological action * Almost all psychoactive drugs (EXCEPT alcohol and nicotine) have been placed in one of five categories (schedules) generated by the act. * Several substances that have little to no potential for abuse or dependence are NOT classified. * Contains provisions for adding drugs to the schedules and for rescheduling drugs. * Consistent with its intended comprehensive character, the Controlled Substances Act established penalties for criminal manufacture or distribution of the scheduled drugs.
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Can the states change their individual drug laws?
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YES. Each state has the opportunity to modify current drug laws according to its own needs and preferences.
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What type of drug were law enforcement agencies having difficulties controlling in the 1980s?
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Designer Drugs. Designer drugs (drugs that were structurally similar but not identical to illegal substances), each time slight modifications were made, enforcement officials were forced to go through the time-consuming process of documenting the drug and having it certified as a controlled substance.
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Controlled Substances Analogue Enforcement Act
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In response to the difficulty controlling designer drugs, (1986) Congress passed the Controlled Substances Analogue Enforcement Act, which allowed for the immediate classification of a substance as a controlled substance -- that way officials were in a better position to address new drugs as soon as they appeared in circulation.
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Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act of 1988
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this legislation controls the distribution of particular chemicals, tabulating machines and encapsulating machines that are used in the manufacture of illicit drugs.
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What type of drugs were added to the schedules in 1999?
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Date rape drugs.
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What drug did the vikings use?
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Mushrooms. Where the phrase "going Berserk" came from -- the vikings were called Berserks
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Who favors no restrictions on drugs?
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Psychologist Andrew Well.
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What is the patchwork quilt of drug regulations based on?
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* Based on the intermingling of * Fact * Health * Morality * Personal Choice * Social Order
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Mandrake (sorcerer's root)
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* Gave bad nickname to scare people away from trying these drugs * "Sorcerer" bad because of witch craze/hunt
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Henbane (devil's eye/stinking nightshade)
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* Gave bad nickname to scare people away from trying these drugs * "Devil" bad because of Christian world don't want association with the devil.
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Were there restrictions on alcohol in London in the Middle Ages?
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* Not alcohol in totality, just some alcohol was restricted/bad * WHY? All goes back to societal control * Beer -- OK ... Gin -- BAD * Hogarth's prints depicted conditions that led to the Gin Act of 1751 * Illegal to distill gin in England (unless you had a license to do so) * Increased taxes on sale of gin * Didn't make CONSUMPTION of gin illegal -- just controlled the production and sales of gin (suppy&demand - hiked up prices --only rich could have it then) * Results: decreased number of gin shops in London (had been estimated as 1 in 4 households in some parts of London were gin shops).
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Why was beer okay in Middle Ages London?
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* It was more sanitary than water * London had an aboveground waste system -- cholera was present * In many cases beer replaced drinking water (very accepted) * Bury St. Edmunds * Gave to local peasants and surfs * Peasants would, in return, provide protection * Central church in an area * Burned down twice -- not by an invading army, but by the people/peasants that lived there against the monks * Monks were rationing beer -- only allowed up to one gallon of beer per person every two day * BEER WAS SO IMPORTANT.
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Why did Britain want to continue opium trade with China?
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* Britain was like nah we won't stop trade because it was incredibly profitable but more notably CULTURAL DIFFERENCES: * It wasn't smoked so people really would not get addicted * So they didn't understand the whole "opiate addiction" thing
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Treaty of Nanking (1842)
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* The Treaty of Nanking 1842 (ended the wars) * Gave British the rights to the Hong Kong port until 1997 * China had to reimburse the people that lost money on those destroyed shipments
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Did the Treaty of Nanking last?
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* Good for 4 years until the Second Opium War * Ended quickly (Brits won) * Acquiesced to China because they did not want to keep having these wars * Huge tax on opium until 20th century * Implications: * China was ahead of its time -- noticed in its own people a trend that most of the world would not catch up to until the 20th century (opiate addiction).
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What the major invention for drug delivery in the 1850s?
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The development of the hypodermic syringe. * Morphine got its first heavy use during the Civil War via the hypodermic syringe (reserved only for officers of higher rank) * What determined you reputation as a doctor during the Civil War was not how GOOD you were, it was how QUICK you were * Lower rank -- anesthetic of choice for surgery (even amputation) was alcohol -- get them as liquored up as possible.
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Paragoric
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* A mixture of opium and alcohol, was distributed like spices were. Doses for infants, children, and adults are given on the bottle. At 46% alcohol, this product is 92 proof. * Called it GOM (God's Own Medicine) used to treat pretty much everything.
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Were the 1800s a drug users paradise?
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By 1900, estimates that a quarter of a million people were addicted, most to patent medicines Grossly underestimated number
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What populations were most vulnerable/addicted by the year 1900?
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Women aged 25-40 (child bearing age because physicians of the time did not understand women's health) and children (baby is crying? oh give them some laudanum drops to quiet them down).
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Describe the Whiskey Rebellion and its importance/implications.
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* Huge national debt, Alexander Hamilton imposed whiskey tax to help alleviate it * Caused uproar - Whiskey Rebellion (1794) - John Nebble was shot in the back for it (out on frontier) * George Washington led troops out into battle the citizens (first & last time you will see this) * After that negotiations took place and no one died * First time you saw States Rights vs Federal Rights in the USA * First time you see trying to control a substance in the USA * Overturned by the next president (Jefferson) * IMPLICATION: Established that the federal government had the power to enforce federal laws within the state * Stayed status quo for about a century until further westward expansion.
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Sherley Amendment (1912)
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After manufacturers found a loop hole in the Pure Food and Drug Act (labeling vs claims) this amendment was passed. * Changed wording to FRAUDULENT claims * So now who has the burden of proof? * Put FDA under burden to prove every test on every product (nowadays the burden is on the manufacturers) * This gave manufacturers wiggle room to continue their bad practices * US vs Johnson court case.
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What was come reasons for the push of Prohibition?
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* Water purification (especially in cities) became better and water was safe to drink * No longer reliant on alcohol so [some] people wanted prohibition. Also -- morality, big business, the war
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Who was the president at the time of prohibition and did he support the amendment?
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President Wilson. He actually vetoed it, but Congress overrode him.
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What was a loophole in the Prohibition amendement?
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Jamaican Ginger Extract * Story of the Jake Leg (1930) * No alcohol (prohibition) so people would use patent medicines to get the little bit of alcohol in the medicines * People taking it would get wobbly, eventually they wouldn't even be able to walk * Discovered that there was plastercisor in them -- caused mylin degeneration (similar to what you see in ALS) PERMANENT.
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What were some benefits of Prohibition?
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* Per capital alcohol use * Alcohol-related liver cirrhosis * Alcohol use disorders * Accidents due to alcohol * Arrests for alcohol related crimes * Hospital admittances for alcohol related ailments
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Hayes Commission 1922
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* Hollywood * Hayes Commission 1922 -- no lawbreaking, violence, sex, or alcohol consumption on the screen * Forerunner to Production Code of 1934
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What was the precursor to the Controlled Substance Act?
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1965: Drug Abuse Control Amendment * Remained law until 1970, when declared unconstitutional * The reversal is because we get the controlled substance act instead
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Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act (2009)
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* Allow FDA regulation: *Manufacture/marketing/sale of tobacco products * Does not allow outright ban on tobacco products, but a number of actions were mandated * Focus??? * For the youth of the US * Got rid of candy cigarettes, stronger warnings on smokeless tobacco and cigarettes, limited advertisement (only have advertisements in black and white AND make sure there were restrictions on where advertisements were placed) * Every year that you start using earlier/younger, the higher the rate of lifetime use
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UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs in 1961
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* First international effort towards controlling drug use and abuse * 12 European countries pledged to fight drug abuse/trafficking via legislation * Realized it was not working * Amended 1972 to encourage efforts to prevent substance abuse and provide treatment services
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1990 Frankfurt Resolution
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* Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Zurich * Attempts to eliminate drugs and drug use cannot succeed * Encouraged legislation to decriminalize purchase/possession/consumption of cannabis * Many jurisdictions began focusing on reducing negative effects * 'Harm Reduction' or 'Harm Minimalization' * Many countries don't distinguish between hard and soft drugs
