Disorders of Articulation & Phonology – Flashcards

In an articulation disorder the child's difficulty is at a phonetic level. That is, they have trouble making the individual speech sounds (even though there is nothing 'wrong' with their articulators). In a phonological disorder the child's difficulty is at a phonemic level (in the mind). This "phonemic level" is sometimes referred to as "the linguistic level" or "a cognitive level". May have difficulty with certain syllable shapes. -> a child may have CCV and V but be able to form the CVC pattern Phonetic (articulation) level The phonetic level takes care of the motor act of producing the vowels and consonants, so that we have a repertoire of all the sounds we need in order to speak our language(s). Phonological (phonemic) level The phonological or phonemic level is in charge of the brainwork that goes into organizing the speech sounds into patterns of sound contrasts. The sounds need to contrast with each other, or be distinct from one another, so that we can make sense when we talk. Articulation (phonetic) disorder In essence, an articulation disorder is a SPEECH disorder that affects the PHONETIC level. The child has difficulty saying particular consonants and vowels. The reason for this may be unknown (e.g., no serious problems with muscle function); or the reason may be known (e.g., children with dysarthria who DO have serious problems with muscle function).

Articulation emphasized problems resulting from a motor problem impacting articulators; treatment focused on "speech correction" Phonological emphasizes a problem resulting from delays in the maturation of the underlying phonological system; treatment focuses on building and re-organizing children's phonological representations Phonological disorder A phonological disorder is a LANGUAGE disorder that affects the PHONOLOGICAL (phonemic) level. The child has difficulty organizing their speech sounds into a system of sound contrasts (phonemic contrasts). For example, voiced/voiceless, front/back http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rhIZHh4oJpg /k/ and /g/ An articulation disorder and a phonological disorder can co-occur. That is, the same child can have BOTH. An articulation disorder refers to a child who has difficulty producing and forming particular speech sounds correctly e.g. lisping or not being able to produce a particular sound e.g. "r". These disorders are generally very specific in nature and require therapy from a trained speech pathologist. Not related to a specific class of sounds but more often one specific sound http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SwgP5aL8Bb8 child with vocalic /r/

4 levels of phonological knowledge Can help us determine etiology or specific issues underlying speech sound disorders Includes: Perceptual Knowledge Articulatory knowledge Higher level phonological categorization Social-indexical knowledge Perceptual knowledge Variability of sounds between talkers as a function of social factors(age,gender,social class) and context This type of knowledge is shown by categorical perception ("within category blindness") we are not able to discriminate sounds within certain categories which helps us to differentiate/delineate our sounds from foreign ones (a) information about the fine-grained acoustic-perceptual characteristics of words, (b) information about the categorical structure of sounds, to account for the "blindness" Children as old as 10 years still show more immature perception than adults in noisy environments A child would accrue knowledge of the likelihood of occurrence of different phonetic parameters associated with /s/, such as formant frequencies, duration, and spectral characteristics. Children are also different in their demonstration of fine-grained auditory- perceptual knowledge (as shown by their performance on word recognition experiments manipulating the number of talkers). -->Children at age 10 still don't have these clear line between diff. phonemic categories/ it is not solidified yet i.e. so an /s/ and /sh/ might still be combined Articulatory knowledge To produce a sound accurately, individuals must possess motor plans for sounds that are sufficiently flexible to allow accurate production in a variety of contexts and with a variety of task demands A number of researchers have shown that both segment duration and temporal and spectral variability decrease as age increases development of articulatory knowledge appears to be distinct from the development of non-speech oral-motor movements; different patterns of coordination and neuromuscular activity are found for speech and non-speech tasks Children are less able to produce or approximate certain sounds when a pertubutation is inserted..this is because they have less articulatory knowledge but is it alsoBecause this now becomes a volitional act rather than a natural???? Higher level phonological categorization English speakers' knowledge of /s/ includes the knowledge that it cannot occur word-initially following stop consonants, before an aspirated voiceless stop, word-finally after a voiced stop consonant (this is ___________) For example, listeners will judge an initial /ps/ sequence as an unacceptable sequence of sounds in English, regardless of the specific articulatory or acoustic characteristics of /s/ -Non-words that contain /st/ are rated as "better" than ones containing /sf/, which are rated as "better" than those containing completely unattested sequences, such as /ps/. Munson and Babel (2005) found that children were less able than adults to suppress lexical items and utilize recently activated phoneme-level motor plans in a reiterant speech task (phonological neighborhood density.) Children with larger vocabularies showed evidence of more mature higher level phonological knowledge.( even in nonwords we are able to produce the /sk/ cluster because we have phonological memory to guide us... something like /sf/ would be harder to produce since we don't have anything to based our production on - These skills would supplement the child's knowledge of the correspondences between articulation and acoustics (Jordan, 1990). This would help the language learner to make a fast and relatively automatic association between the sounds that they hear and the articulatory movements required to reproduce them. It would also allow a child to recognize a newly encountered word as being a string of known categories rather than an unanalyzable whole—that is, the nonword /voƱp/ can be analyzed as a string of the known categories /v/, /oƱ/, and /p/. We can describe this as a "fast mapping" of a word's phonological structure -Vihman, Macken, Simmons, Miller, and Simmons (1985) showed a relationship between the phonological characteristics of prelinguistic babbling and the phonological forms of early words, suggesting that children's acquisition of lexical items was related to the earlier phonological knowledge that was accrued during infancy Munson found that children with SSD imitated nonsense words less well with less frequent sound sequences - difference b/w easy and harder words was same as Typically Developing children. This indicates that the higher level phonological categorization might not have anything to do with children who have SSD -research results suggest that many children with phonological disorders have deficits in articulatory and perceptual knowledge, but do not have deficits in the higher level phonological knowledge, as it is measured in non-word repetition.(because they perform as well as typically developing children) Social--indexical knowledge refers to knowledge of how linguistic variation is used to convey and perceive membership in different social groups Strand (1999) and Munson et al. (2005) showed that listeners categorized fricatives differently depending on their perception of talkers' sex and how prototypically male or female their voices sound -boys and girls produced sex-specific pronunciation patterns in advance of the anatomical differences that would necessitate such differences young children's ability to process words in an unfamiliar dialect was poorer than that of older children. Children's comprehension was significantly reduced when presented with words in an unfamiliar dialect -->Of all theses dfif types of knowledge, ssd kids will have issues with social indexical knowledge and all other levels except for higher phonological categorization

Infants are born as 'universal listeners' As early as one month they can detect the difference between /ba/ and /pa/ even if this contrast does not occur in their language. (voicing) By 2 months /d/ and /g/ (place of articulation..front vs. back) By 6 months of age, the infant begins to learn to tune out the irrelevant cues that are not present in their native language and become 'language specific' perceivers By 12 months of age their perception for many if not all non-native contrasts has greatly decreased while their perception of native sound contrasts has been maintained or in some cases become more robust Vowel perception becomes language specific sooner (9-10mo.) than consonants(1-012mo.) (Polka & Werker, 1994). 'perceptual magnet effects' (PME) have been observed for within-category stimuli in both infant and adult studies (Kuhl, 1992). ***Perception and production are closely linked

PRODUCTION OF CONSONANTS: By age 12 months children had average of 4.4 consonants (range of 0-16) (Ttofari-Eecen, Reilly, & Eadie, 2007).Perceptual knowledge Variability of sounds between talkers as a function of social factors(age,gender,social class) and context This type of knowledge is shown by categorical perception ("within category blindness") we are not able to discriminate sounds within certain categories which helps us to differentiate/delineate our sounds from foreign ones (a) information about the fine-grained acoustic-perceptual characteristics of words, (b) information about the categorical structure of sounds, to account for the "blindness" The most frequent manner of articulation is stop consonants The most frequent place of articulation is bilabials and alveolars Syllable placement of consonants are more often initial before medial or final consonants PRODUCTION OF VOWELS/CLUSTERS: Two come before 3 consonants (i.e. /st/ will be acquired before /str/) Clusters that include fricatives are harder than stops Mastery of all consonant clusters may take until 9 years May come later if cluster is morphological(I.e. /act/ where kt is a cluster but in the word lacked the kt cluster may not be acquired because this is a morphological skill that has not been acquired yet. Vowels Non rhotic vowels easier. Vowels easier in monosyllabic words Processes disappearing by age 3: Weak syllable deletion Final consonant deletion Doubling (repetition of a word, [gogo] Reduplication Epinthesis of a word (i.e instead of saying doggy they say dog) Diminutization (use of diminutives) Velar fronting Consonant assimilation Prevocalic voicing Processes persisting after age 3: Cluster reduction Epenthesis (in some cases) Gliding Vocalization, e.g., [pipo] for "people" Stopping Depalatalization Final devoicing PHONOLOGICAL PATTERNS Reduplication baba (bottle) --- syllable structure is simplified Normal process during first 50 words then eliminated No evidence in children ages 1:6 to 1:9 (Preisser, Hodson, and Paden, 1988) in Bauman-Waengler, 2008) Final Consonant Deletion (be/bed) Rare in children 2.2 to 2.5 (Preisser et al., 1988) Disappears by age 3 (Ingram, 1989; Grunwell, 1987) Weak Syllable Deletion (unstressed syllable deletion) frigerator/refrigerator; puter/computer Disappears by age 4 (Ingram, 1989; Grunwell, 1987) Gliding (gliding of /r/ and /l/) wabbit/rabbit j -ook/ look continues after age 5; occurs rarely as late as age 7(Smit, 1993 in Bauman-Waengler) Denasalization (d/n) rare even in very young children Vowelization (vocalization) substitution of /l/ /n/ /er/ with vowels ladder, table ado, tabo Assimilation Consonant Assimilation (babu/"table"; /tot/"coat/ consonant assimilation and fronting Not present after age 3 years

Sound Repertoire of a Typical Two-Year Old Child Carol Stoel-Gammon (1998) Stop Consonants voiced and voiceless labial alveolar Velar* Nasal Consonants Labial Alveolar Glides /w/ /h/ Few Fricatives Typically /f/ /z/ A few consonant clusters __________________________________________ * Some researchers found velars particularly difficult for 2 year olds (50% of 2 year old children did not use them) Sound Repertoire of a Typical Three-Year Old Child Stop Consonants Nasal Consonants Glides Fricatives Liquid Affricates (Will produce some of all manner classes. We will see them atleast emerging in 3yr olds) 4yr old -should be 93% intelligible (under chapter 3 development slide) GFT Sound Development Norms 2 initial: /b/, /d/, /h/, /m/, /n/, /p/ medial: /b/, /m/, /n/ final: /m/, /p/ 3. initial: /f/, /g/, /k/, /t/, /w/ medial: /f/, /g/, /k/, /ŋ/, /p/, t/ final: /b/, /d/, /g/, /k/, /n/, /t/ 4 initial: /kw/ medial: /d/ final: /f/

PREVALENCE AND INCIDENCE IN SSD 4-13% of children are affected Affects boys (4.5%) at slightly higher rate than girls (3%) Affects African-American children (5.3%) at slightly higher than European-American children (3.8%) 60%: unknown causes 40%: known ORGANIC causes, such as recurrent middle ear infections, motor-speech disorders, and other developmental disorders(cognitive delays, down syndrome,autism)

Systematic/stable learner - these children become more intelligible, have more consistent pronunciation, and try less to imitate whole phrases -this learner follows the typical framework for language acqui. Exploratory/variable learner - these children are intonation oriented (wanting to imitate certain prosody and imitating of phrases rather than learning specific phonemes), less intelligible, suprasegmental emphasis, variable pronunciation across word tokens

...increased speech rate ----syllables,word lengths, vowels get shorten..less stress will occur opposite happens when you decrease speech rate. Occasionally a student's speech rate can directly affect articulation and intelligibility. Speech rates vary tremendously among normal speakers, making it difficult to assign a standard wordper minute (WPM) index. Purcell and Runyan (1980) measured the speaking rates of students in the first through fifth grades and found a slight increase in their average rate at each grade level. The first graders averaged 125 words per minute, and the fifth graders averaged 142 words per minute. It is imperative to recognize that some people who speak exceedingly fast or slow still have excellent intelligibility and control of their speech, while others exhibit significant communication problems due to their rate.The importance of measuring rate of speech does not lie in comparing it with preestablished norms, which only indicate whether the speech rate is normal, faster than normal, or slower than normal. The value of assessing rate of speech is that it allows evaluation of its effect on the student's communication abilities. Will the use of a faster or slower rate result in better communication? Can a better speech rate be elicited? Can it be maintained? These are important questions to consider when assessing the implications of speech rate on intelligibility.

"The distinctive features of an individual phoneme would be those aspects of the process of articulation and their acoustic consequences that serve to contrast one phoneme from another." Distinctive features of phonemes Major Class features (sonorant, consonantal, vocalic) Cavity features ( coronal, anterior,distributed,nasal,lateral,high,low,back,round) Manner features (continuant,delayed release, tense) Source features (heightened subglottal pressure, voicing, stridency) Prosodic features Markedness - sounds that are more _natural_ and occur more commonly in languages are usually acquired first. In the pair /t/ and /d/, /d/ is considered marked as it is the voiced pair. This can also be used for morphemes, any closed syllable is marked compared to an open syllable (English has mostly closed.) This approach continues to be used in therapy: If big is produced as 'pig', got is produced as 'cot', and zip is produced as 'sip', we can say that all of these errors involve the lack of voicing and this is the feature that would then be targeted. (for example the Hindi retroflex /ț/ consonant is highly marked, only occurring in 11% of languages due to its linguistic complexity) This approach of figuring out marked/unmarked cannot address distortions Distinctive feature systems focused attention on the components of phonemes rather than the production of phonemes. Another important aspect of distinctive features is naturalness versus markedness: natural = simple to produce, occuring often e.g., [p] like voiceless,stops, marked = dfficult to produce, occurring less often, e.g., [ʧ]

NATURAL PHONOLOGY Stampe, 1979. Children are born with innate systems of phonological processes such as, stopping of fricatives. They are used to minimize articulatory difficulties. **phonological processes are used to help ease production of the target word Children's underlying representations are still the same as adults, but they produce words according to phonological processes to ease production. (i.e. perceptually children understand that a banana is a banana. Currently in their phonemic repertoire, the cannot produce this so they will say nana instead of banana. [ba] is a weak syllable so its dropped. Limitation: Ordering: some processes can't occur after others/ Ex: initial voicing process. Instead of producing pin they might say bin. Lets say the are asked to say spin, then they will say pin. Suppression: eventually children will learn to depress these rules like WSD for example to then produce the target word. Natural Phonology: the phonological model that has had the greatest impact on the SLP field / Natural processes are those that are preferred or frequently used in phonological systems and are identified in 2 ways ( those that are universal across languages and those that are frequently used by young children) application to typically developing children: natural processes are described as innate rules that are systematically applied to speech production until children learn to suppress them. -one of the goals of intervention based on natural phonology is to teach children to suppress innate simplification processes. BEHAVIORIST MODELS: have their roots in the early work of Pavlov and Skinner. While they are not necessarily accepted as a model that supports how children acquire speech sounds, they have many principles that are used in speech sound treatment. As an acquisition model, the behaviorist does not allow for development that occurs outside of parental or environmental reinforcement. Included in behaviorist is the Ease of perception theory (Olmstead or Mowrer). This theory states that the most easily discriminable sounds will be learned first. Clinical application of behaviorist theory is the idea of positive reinforcements. UNIVERSAL ORDER (Jakobson) - says Most common phoneme contrasts would be learned first. Focused on the greatest contrasts across an phoneme inventory. For example, the stop consonants like, /p/, are the most closed whereas the /a/ is the most open. Also states that if a language has back consonants it must have front consonants and if it has fricatives it must have stops *because fricatives are harder to than stops so it will have stops* basically Jakobson says that phonemic distinctions are acquired in the same order across all languages of the world.

Categorical perception means that a change in some variable along a continuum is perceived, not as gradual but as instances of discrete categories. This is not enough, however, for perception to be regarded as categorical. It is also necessary that discrimination between stimuli is much more accurate between categories than within them. Example: This has to do with categorizing the difference between an r and l

COARTICULATION: The articulation of any one sound is influenced by the sounds before and after. coarticulation makes it impossible to divide the speech stream into neat segments that correspond to phonemes. Coaritculation implies nonsegmentation, or atleast, interaction of the presumed linguistic segments. For ban and mat, the vowel is nasalized when followed by a nasal /n/ For spy and pie, the duration in /sp/ is shorter than the sum of the duration of /p/ in pie. So the overlapping consonant articulations makes the overall duration of the cluster shorter than the sum of the consonant durations as they occur singly. If you have two consonants in between a vowel, the vowel may sound devoiced ex: SiSter Because clusters have overlapping articulations of the constituent consonants, in general, the cluster is a tightly organized sequence of articulatory gestures. -children and adults have difficulties with clusters SEE TABLE 2.5,2.6 for related info - Due to coarticulation, the same gesture will be represented in different contexts by different sounds. - The acoustic signal does appear to be divided into discrete chunks, but these do not correspond the perceptual units in a one-to-one fashion. (for example when we look at spectrograms) - Coarticulation arises for different reasons, some having to do with the phonology of a particular language, some with the basic mechanical or physiological constraints of the speech apparatus, hence, some coarticulations are learned while other are consequences of muscles, ligaments, and bones of the speech apparatus that are linked together and unable to move with infinite speed. -Another aspect of coarticulation is the overlapping of articulations for consonants in clusters. COARTICULATION: various sounds are blended into sequences that flow smoothly together; coarticulation subtly changes the production of each individual sound when it becomes part of a speech unit. Assimilation: involves altering a phoneme so that it takes on a characteristic of another sound in the word, even if that sound has been omitted

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The features shown to assist second-language learners—exaggerated acoustic cues, multiple instances by many talkers, and mass listening experience—are features that motherese provides infants. * Motherese assists children in parsing out units of their native language

A branch of phonology that deals with restrictions in a language on the permissible combinations of phonemes. Phonotactics defines permissible syllable structure, consonant clusters, and vowel sequences by means of _phonotactical constraints___. Phonotactic constraints are highly language specific. For example, in Japanese, consonant clusters like /st/ do not occur.

segmental: actual speech sounds (artic characteristics suprasegmental: prosody,stress,juncture,etc... Suprasegmentals - involved in units larger than the phoneme Stress - degree of effort, prominence or importance given to some part of an utterance. Acoustically, stress is carried primarily by the vowel segment within a syllable Intonation - the vocal pitch contour of an utterance / that is, the way in which FF changes from syllable to syllableand from segment to segment Loudness - is related to sound intensity or the amount of vocal effort that a speaker uses. Pitch level - individual / it's the average pitch of a speaker's voice and relates to the mean Frequency of an utterance Juncture - aka, vocal punctuation is a combination of intonation, pausing and other suprasegmentals to mark special distinctions in speech or to express grammatical division Speaking rate - measured in words per sec, syllabus per sec or phonemes per sec.

Children's first 50 words typically consist of small syllable shapes (CV, VC, CVCV) with a few front consonants (/m, n, p, b, t, d/). Often, final consonant deletion, reduplication, and cluster reduction are common processes seen early in speech production. The kinds of sounds thst a child can produce are directly related to the kind of vocab they use

As early as one month they can detect the difference between /ba/ and /pa/ even if this contrast does not occur in their language. (voicing)

Stage 1 - Phonation , aka:reflexive (birth to one month)->crying,fussing,burping Stage 2 - coo and goo (2-3 months)-->are acoustically similar to back vowels or to syllables consisting of back consonants and back vowels Stage 3 - exploration/expansion stage(raspberries,vowels,squeals,yelling) (4-6m) Stage 4 - Canonical babbling (phonetic repertoire:stops, ,nasals and glides) (7-9m)--> vocalizations in this stages consist of CV syllables that have more adult like timing for closure and opening. this period is most noted for reduplicated syllables like bababa although there is no sound to meaning correspondence Stage 5 - variegated babbling (a variety of CV not just the same sounds repetively) (10-12m)--> variety of vowels and consonants are produced and adult like intonation patterns emerge in this stage.

see learning styles question

Shriberg describes any speech sound errors that continue past the age of 9 years as persistent . All issues including speech errors (distortions of /s/ or /r/), speech delays (due to hearing loss, psychosocial, or other factors), and motor speech delays can all result in typical development by the age of 9 years--so after 9 years of age it is known as a speech error but before 9yr old it is a delay Speech Errors- these include sibilant (/s/) and liquids (/r/) that don't have a great impact on intelligibility and are not associated with adverse social, academic or vocational consequences

Children with a hearing loss do not benefit from the same tactile and internal feedback that hearing children do. This often leads to poor/atypical velopharyngeal learning and movement. (so we are gonna see hypo/hypernasal speech in hearing loss) Infant hearing screenings in most states of US but is not universal Non-developmental patterns (both aids and implanted) 1. initial consonant deletion 2. glottal stop subs 3. backing 4. vowels subs (rarely in typically developing children) 5. diphthong simplification Common errors seen in children with hearing impairment Omission - final consonants, initials consonants, all /s/ sounds in all positions Substitutions - voiced for voiceless, nasal for oral, vowels Distortion - degree of force, hypernasality, atypical vowel duration Addition errors - insertion of vowels between consonants, unnecessary release of stops, superfluous breath before vowels

The symptoms that distinguish apraxia are: distorted sound substitutions and additions, decreased phonemic accuracy with increase in rate, attempts to correct errors that cross phonemic boundaries, groping for articulatory postures, greater difficulty on volitional speech acts (so not automatic speech tasks), and greater difficulty on multi-syllabic word tasks and sequential motion rate.(like issues saying pa-ta-ka) Typically there is a decrease in overall production rate Symptoms of Apraxia for A Very Young Child Does not coo or babble as an infant *(also indicator of hearing loss) First words are late, and they may be missing sounds Only a few different consonant and vowel sounds Problems combining sounds; may show long pauses between sounds Simplifies words by replacing difficult sounds with easier ones or by deleting difficult sounds (although all children do this, the child with apraxia of speech does so much more) May have problems eating Symptoms of Apraxia in a Older Child Makes inconsistent sound errors that are not the result of immaturity Can understand language much better than he or she can talk Has difficulty imitating speech, but imitated speech is more clear than spontaneous speech May appear to be groping when attempting to produce sounds or to coordinate the lips, tongue, and jaw for purposeful movement Has more difficulty saying longer words or phrases clearly than shorter ones Appears to have more difficulty when he or she is anxious Is hard to understand, especially for an unfamiliar listener Sounds choppy, monotonous, or stresses the wrong syllable or word

Possible etiological factors Family/client perception of problem (how are they functioning in the home) Academic, work, home, and social environment issues Medical, developmental(birth info, pregnancy info), and social info

Independent analysis: taking an inventory. We want to know what the child's phonetic inventory, what vowels,consonant and syllable shapes the can produce. We are not comparing this to adult speech Independent Based solely on transcription form Can be used with unintelligible productions Suitable measures for very immature children Reflect child's phonetic ability at different levels of structure Relational analysis: we are comparing this to adult speech/ we are looking at what was correct/ in this instance, we have to know the target, this cannot be something from a speech sample but through assessment. Here we would look at phonological processes Based on transcription based on target forms/ so we compare to adult target forms Requires target of child's production (require's child to play with specific toy in a spec. environment) Better measures for more mature children Reflects child's phonological accuracy at different levels of structure A phonetic inventory is part of an independent analysis of a child's phonological system, revealing the sounds produced by the child regardless of correctness relative to the target and providing the set of sounds that are available to the child for forming words. They are spontaneous sounds produced without assistance(credit is given regardless of target). A phonemic inventory aims to establish not just the sounds that are produced by a child but the sounds that are used contrastively and that enable the child to make distinctions between words. (i.e. can a child produce the bilabials bat,mat,pat )

Ingram & Ingram (2001) noted that PCC ignores the complexity of the words being produced. PCC is just looking at the segment level(just the consonant) Proposed two new measures: -PMLU-phonological mean length of utterance (this is a focus on whole words not just segments) -PWP- proportion of whole-word proximity (how correct the words tend to be) PMLU Based on words rather than utterances. Assumes that length of the words is a proxy for complexity. Compute an average of at least 25 DIFFERENT words. 1 point for each segment produced (consonants and vowels). 1 point for each correct consonant Longer words = more points PWP & PWC Compute PMLU for each word and divide by the PMLU of the target (i.e., the score for a fully correct version of the word). Compute an average for at least 25 different words Child says /tƆr/ for /skƆr/ "score" PMLU = 4 points: 3 segments produced; 1 correct consonant. PMLU of target = 7 points: 4 total segments; 3 total consonants. PWP = 4/7 = 0.57 Proportion of Whole-word Correctness (PWC)- the ratio of correct attempts over the total number of productions. PMLU and PWP are word level measures that may have some clinical value PCC and PPC are segment level measures with a longer history in the field In general, we should expect these measures to be highly correlated (if a child does poorly on one they should do poorly on the other

8 factors that influence clinical evaluation of intelligibility: Loss of phonological contrasts Loss of contrasts in specific environments Extent of homonymy Amount of difference between target to realization Frequency of occurrence in English, so how often does this structure occur in English Consistency Familiarity of listener with speaker Context in which communication occurs (are they speaking with a familiar/unfamiliar adult, are the speaking in a different environment) Factors that affect intelligibility: Number of errors Types of sound errors (Phonological process errors affect intelligibility to a greater degree than simple phonetic/articulation errors.) Inconsistency of errors Vowel errors Rate of speech (especially if it is excessively slow or fast) Atypical prosodic characteristics of Length and linguistic complexity of the words and utterances used Student anxiety about the test -->Gordon-Brannan & Hodson (2000) - determined that children above the age of 4;0 with speech intelligibility score of less than 66% should be considered as candidates for intervention.

Major substitutions: Fronting --so we need to know what sounds CAN be fronted Backing -very atypical, has sig. impact on intelligi. Stopping - describes use of the 6 stop consonants in place of fricatives, nasals, etc. What are the 6 stops? Gliding - /w/ or /j/ for another consonant Vowelization : when liquids are replaced with a vowel (de)palatalization - 'she' for see (palatalization) (de)affrication - 'shoe' for 'chew' (deaffrication)

Syllable structure/context-related changes Reduplication Epenthesis - blue /bəlu/ Diminutive Cluster creation

After erred consonants are identified, we must test the child's stimulability /s/ stimulability - first provide a verbal model. If child cannot reproduce it, provide tactile or other cues. It has been shown that /s/ is more easily targeted in clusters with consonants the child can produce (e.g., start with 'stop' if the child typically substitutes /t/ for /s/). Use of tactile cues to the arm is also helpful

what difference does phonetic context, # of syllables, and stress or lack of stress in a syllable make to phonological assessment? Phonetic context phonological complexity(due to variability ) can affect sound production # of syllables bi-syllabic words would therefore be more acceptable contexts for inventorying production Stress unstressed syllables would not be good opportunities for testing consonant production

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Storkel 2006 Inventory constraints - what is in their inventory, what are they able to produce Positional constraints - where in the syllable can they produce it, initial, medial or final? Sequence constraints - has to do with the construction of sound? Can different sounds co-occur? "the sounds babbled most frequently are produced more accurately by English-learning 2 year olds, and appear more often in the languages of the world, than other sounds." (Locke, 2002) -sounds that are marked are not going to be sounds that children will produce when babbling -they will use the easiest sounds In and out sounds: When children are producing sounds they have more out than in sounds In consonant sound will help them with learning Under two years, in sounds will facilitate and out sounds will be prevented/avoided Around 3 yrs of age, they are less interested in 'in' sounds and the in sounds will be more neutral to them and out sounds that are emerging are going to facilitate. As they are get older, they will be more interested in the out sounds like th,ch, rather than in sounds like m or v The initial final consonants are usully p,n,t,s,k, Is this influenced by an infant interest in native language? Children will listen longer to these out sounds because they are more interesting

...PROS: It is ideal to get a conversational speech sample as the goal of therapy is to eventually use all sounds appropriately in a natural setting Different types of errors have been reported in conversational speech than in single words (Klein & Liu-Shea, 2009) Use of a conversational speech sample can also give us info on speech rate, intonation, stress and syllable structure CONS: Many words/utterances may be unintelligible and cannot be transcribed (if we don't know the target, we can't figure out what the errors are) Many children are too shy to engage in conversation with a stranger It can be difficult to get a sample that includes all target phonemes because child will produce targets that are easier relative to more complicated targets -sounds missing from sample could e due to selective avoidance Time consuming

Purpose: This report considered the validity of making conclusions about a child's phonetic inventory based on the data from standardized single-word tests of articulation or phonology. Results: None of the tests provided sufficient coverage of consonants or vowels for establishing a phonetic inventory and making conclusions about the segments that a child can and cannot produce. It is suggested to get additional sample and probe in phonetically controlled contexts Conclusion: Use of the data from a single standardized test of articulation or phonology would not be sufficient for completely inventorying a child's consonant and vowel production and selecting targets for therapy. phonetic inventory is distinct from two other independent analyses—a phonemic inventory and a stimulability inventory. Phonemic inventory: sounds that child can use contrastively Stimulability assessment: what the child can produce with support Just looking at a single targeted production of a sound may not be enough Words with difficult phonetic contexts that might not be representative of the child's phonetic inventory. Currently, we do not have research evidence on what constitutes a sufficient number of opportunities for concluding that a child does or does not produce a given sound. Syllable stress. Ingram et al. (1980) reported that word-initial consonants were more prone to error when they occurred in unstressed syllables than in stressed syllables. (I.e. balloon not a good word to test /b/ since stress in on the second syllable) Number of syllables- later acquisition age for /v/ reported by Templin (1957), who tested /v/ in vacuum cleaner and valentine Wellman, Case, Mengert, and Bradbury (1931) found earlier acquisition for production of /v/ in the words: vase and vest Cluster contexts. Children are likely to omit the more marked consonant. Omissions from clusters may reflect difficulty with producing the consonant sequence rather than a problem with the consonant itself. Morpheme structure. Morpheme structure can also affect production because SSD often co-occurs with language impairment (Shriberg & Kwiatkowski, 1994). For children with morphosyntactic deficits, omission of a final consonant in plural nouns, such as keys, or past-tense verbs, such as locked, may relate to morpheme omissions rather than to omission of the sound per se. Vowel-consonant associations - For typically developing children around age 18 to 24 months, as the child's vocabulary increases, the child's phonology undergoes a radical change from a holistic representation of words to a phoneme-based system (Vihman, 1996; Walley, 1993) Vowel inventories - syllable stress and # of syllables *Children learn words by first acquiring a holistic representation of concepts or words and as they get older they start to learn about sounds and are able to then combine an unlimited combination of sound patterns

because they are multisyllabic so we might not get a accurate representation

rhyming/discrim/ ---you'd be doing a phonological analyses so you'd be looking a phonemic differences of these minimal paits. SO PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS IS TESTING YOUR PHONETIC INVENTORY

place,manner.voicing . we use distinctive features to gives us more info.

a phonological issue. apraxia?

voiced, consonant, interrupted, obstruent, bilabial, anterior, stop

sonorant

place,manner.voicing . we use distinctive features to gives us more info.

ability to distinguish universal languages decreases and ability to identify mother tongue increases.

1)Must have a phonetic relationship to an adult word (it sounds similar) 2)Child must use the word consistently in the presence of a particular situation or object

FCD and reduplication will be the most common ones...

Stage 2

Higher-level phonological knowledge example: pt is illegal in english but legal in other languages

perception means how they are judging their own errors. and we also wanna test sounds that they cannot produce= self-perception

substitution omission disortion additions. --> used in a relational analysis.

Compensatory Speech Characteristics Glottal stops (substitutions will be made) Laryngeal stops, affricates, & fricatives Pharyngeal stops, affricates & fricatives Posterior nasal affricates Posterior nasal fricatives

late babbling, inconsistent errors (variability,random), motor planning deficits, volitional aspect

Symptoms of velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD) due to incomplete closure of the velopharyngeal valve may include: Hypernasality: too much sound coming out of the nose during speech Nasal Air Emission: happens when air leaks through the nose (because of a short palate or fistula) while trying to build up pressure for consonant sounds. It is often described as a "windy" sound. Nasal Rustle/Turbulence: a "rustling" noise that is made when air loss through the nose causes "bubbling" of nasal secretions. Weak or omitted consonants Short utterance length Due to loss of air through nose Compensatory speech errors (like more glottal stops, laryngeal fricative instead of fricatives ocuring in the oral cavity as they should)

wsd, ccr, assimilation(fronting)

Speech Sample Advantages: natural spontaneous sample. Use of a conversational speech sample can also give us info on speech rate, intonation, stress and syllable structure Disadvantages: phonemes might be limited, takes longer, unintelligible utterances, it is difficult to compare before/after speech samples, diff What does the article report in regards to uses only a standardized test to assess a child's inventory? Standardized tests may provide advantages and reliability when collecting data that comes form single-word tests rather than connected speech samples. Standardized tests are used to identify a child who may have a SSD and is also used to analyze production and determine goals. Although single-word tests may be useful due to their availability of norms for identifying SSD they might not be appropriate for inventorying production and selecting goals as they may lead to faulty assumptions about areas of deficit and achieved skills. Also, tests designed for assessing consonant production might not be appropriate for assessing vowel production. *It is important to have standardized tests that look for vowel production as single-word tests have mainly focused on consonants. - One of the most compelling reasons for SLPs to use single-word standardized tests is the availability of norms for identifying SSD (Skahan et al., 2007). - Test results may be required by school districts to qualify for services or may be required by third-party payers to receive coverage for SLP services (Klein, 1996; Tyler&Tolbert, 2002). - Might not be appropriate for inventorying production and selecting goals (